Lexicon: https://snapshotsofthelabyrinth.photo.blog/2026/11/09/classical-khelai-lexicon/
This text is based on Yo na lyafüru, a learning grammar of Classical Khélai (English name: High Florestican), the classical language of Némorath. Most of its examples are about everyday life in the City of Red and Blue Gables and the country around it: the market, the canals, the households of the clans, the Phong, and the weather through the year.
1. The language and its world
1.1 Where Khélai was spoken
High Florestican, also called Classical Khélai, is the classical language of the Six Clans of Némorath and of their empire, Khélythëa. In the capital, the City of Red and Blue Gables, it was the language of the clan councils and the sanctuaries and of the songs sung in the evening. Caravans from the Íthir Mountains, couriers from the north and merchants from the eastern coast learned enough of it for bargaining.
(1) Dödhewusorende üno ve, lira zeyusht ẅeshi lyuwenotun na yeyobuyen; son dareusht yon ra, zorepürunde ge le.
Dödhewusoren-de üno ve, lira zey-ush=t ẅeshi lyuwenotun na yeyobuyen; son dare-ush=t yon ra, zorepürun-de ge le.
council.sanctuary-PL-GEN hill ABL person see-HAB=DIR many red.gable-PL and blue.tile-PL 3IN.PL descend-HAB=DIR courtyard-PL ALL blossom.tree-PL-GEN shadow LOC
‘From the hill of the council sanctuaries you can see many red gables and blue tiles; they come down to the courtyards, in the shade of the flowering trees.’
(2) Lyöẅe le, wese nat avi, na pölyin zengausht weseenyiten; day slethara ke sleatt a nyu pireusht nolyuẅo le.
Lyöẅe le, wese na=t avi, na pölyin zenga-ush=t weseenyiten; day slethara ke sle-at=t a nyu pire-ush=t nolyuẅo le.
noon LOC water ATTR=DIR shallow and child-PL jump-HAB=DIR canal-PL but porter REL carry-IPFV=DIR three basket travel-HAB=DIR bridge LOC
‘At noon, the water is shallow, and children jump the canals; but a porter carrying three baskets goes over the bridge.’
Three peoples are around in the country. The Hyperboreans (kelyan) live in the towns and the fields, and the clans are theirs. The Phong have wings, fur and long beaks; they travel with the clans, serve in the sanctuaries, and speak telepathically. The Numi live in the ocean. Few people in the City have ever seen one.
(3) Fongade fure nat vösi; fongade nöru nat rori.
Fonga-de fure na=t vösi; fonga-de nöru na=t rori.
Phong-GEN fur ATTR=DIR beautiful Phong-GEN beak ATTR=DIR long
‘A Phong’s fur is delicate; a Phong’s beak is long.’
(4) Numiyade miri falete thiats.
Numiya-de miri falete thi-at=s.
Numi-GEN little knowledge exist-IPFV=INFER
‘Of the Numi, evidently, little is known.’
1.2 How the examples are set out
Each example is given three times. The first line, in italics, is the sentence as a Khélai scribe would write it. Below it the sentence is cut into its parts, with a gloss under each word: lure-at=t “shine-IPFV=DIR” is the verb lure “shine” with the imperfective suffix and the clitic of direct evidence. Then comes an English translation, which follows the Khélai closely.
(5) Lüye le, wuvometharan dörousht wu, na yonyule lüweusht shethi wu sari.
Lüye le, wuvometharan döro-ush=t wu, na yonyule lüwe-ush=t shethi wu sari.
morning LOC baker-PL bake-HAB=DIR bread and lane smell-HAB=DIR warm bread SIM
‘At the morning watch, the bakers bake bread, and the lane smells of warm bread.’
The abbreviations used in the glosses are listed at the end of the page. Also consult the lexicon: https://snapshotsofthelabyrinth.photo.blog/2026/11/09/classical-khelai-lexicon/
2. Sounds and spelling
2.1 Consonants
Khélai has twenty-four consonants. Six of them are written with two letters: th and dh are the sounds at the start of English thin and this, sh and zh those in ship and measure, ny and ly are palatal, made with the middle of the tongue against the roof of the mouth. y is the glide of English yes, and ẅ is a glide made with rounded lips and the tongue forward, as in French huit.
| Kind | Sounds | Romanization |
|---|---|---|
| Stops | /p t k b d g/ | p t k b d g |
| Voiceless fricatives | /f θ s ʃ h/ | f th s sh h |
| Voiced fricatives | /v ð z ʒ/ | v dh z zh |
| Nasals | /m n ɲ/ | m n ny |
| Liquids | /l ʎ r/ | l ly r |
| Glides | /w j ɥ/ | w y ẅ |
thore “footprint” · dhu “night” · shulẅo “wind” · zhore “sword” · nyenyo “spring, well” · lyuwe “red” · yeyo “blue” · ẅöru “evening watch”
Several of them come together in this sentence:
(6) Ẅöru le, shulẅo shöẅüatt yeyobuyen le.
Ẅöru le, shulẅo shöẅü-at=t yeyobuyen le.
evening LOC wind blow-IPFV=DIR blue.tile-PL LOC
‘In the evening watch, the wind blows over the blue tiles.’
2.2 Vowels
There are seven vowels: i e a o u, and the two front rounded vowels ü (as in German über) and ö (as in German schön). There are no diphthongs. The rounded front vowels are common: lüye “morning watch”, lure “shine”, nöre “fade”, wüne “bead of dew”.
| Written | Sound | Description |
|---|---|---|
| i | /i/ | close front |
| ü | /y/ | close front rounded |
| u | /u/ | close back rounded |
| e | /e/ | mid front |
| ö | /ø/ | mid front rounded |
| o | /o/ | mid back rounded |
| a | /a/ | open |
(7) Zoren lureat·r·nöreatt wese le.
Zoren lure-at=r=nöre-at=t wese le.
flower-PL shine-IPFV=SS.SIM=fade-IPFV=DIR water LOC
‘Flowers shine in the water even while they fade.’
2.3 Two spellings
The examples are written in two ways. The reading form is ordinary Khélai spelling: suffixes are written onto their words and there are no equals signs. The analysis cuts each word at its boundaries, with a hyphen before a suffix and an equals sign before a clitic. The reading form has ẅelyoatt where the analysis has ẅelyo-at=t. Only one t is heard at the end of -at=t, and the poems often write only one: ẅelyoat.
(8) Pölyin ẅelyoatt weseenyite le, na seyande rulöba frömuatt seyan se ve.
Pölyin ẅelyo-at=t weseenyite le, na seyan-de rulöba frömu-at=t seyan se ve.
child-PL bathe-IPFV=DIR canal LOC and 3AN.PL-GEN aunt scold-IPFV=DIR 3AN.PL bank ABL
‘The children are bathing in the canal, and their aunt is scolding them from the bank.’
2.4 Syllables and stress
A syllable is (C)(C)V(C). The commonest clusters at the start of a syllable are a stop or a fricative with r or l: pr, tr, kr, pl, kl, bl, fl, fr, thr, sl, sr, shr, vr, vl. At the end of a syllable the usual consonants are nasals and liquids. Stress falls on the next-to-last mora and is not written: lyanmu “market” is said LYAN-mu, nölyuẅo “stone bridge” nö-LYU-ẅo.
(9) Blöko pireatt thral rali dho. Blöko pire-at=t thral rali dho. caravan travel-IPFV=DIR twelve mammoth COM ‘The caravan is travelling with twelve mammoths.’
2.5 Glides between vowels; nasals before consonants
Where a suffix beginning with a vowel follows a vowel, a short glide is heard between them, though it is not written: lure-at=t is said [luˈre.jat], ranü-at=t [raˈny.ɥat]. After i and e the glide is [j], after u and o it is [w], after ü and ö it is [ɥ]; after a it matches the next vowel. Before p, b, m the nasal n is said [m], before k, g it is said [ŋ], and before y it is said [ɲ].
(10) Lüye le, wese lureatt Lyuwenotu–Yeyonotu le.
Lüye le, wese lure-at=t Lyuwenotu-yeyonotu le.
morning LOC water shine-IPFV=DIR City.of.Gables LOC
‘At the morning watch, the water shines in the City of Red and Blue Gables.’
2.6 Soft words and hard words
Poets prefer words for light, water and care that are mostly made of liquids, glides and open vowels, while words for breaking and knocking that have more stops and clusters. The first two examples below are of the first kind, the last two of the second:
(11) Wüne gönyüthat welüẅe lyesu le.
Wüne gönyü-tha=t welüẅe lyesu le.
dew.bead catch.light-PFV=DIR last.light thread LOC
‘A bead of dew catches the last of the light on a thread.’
(12) Lyewa ranüatt lyödo.
Lyewa ranü-at=t lyödo.
moth brush-IPFV=DIR lantern
‘A moth is brushing the paper lantern.’
(13) Lyöti honuthat tinshebo.
Lyöti honu-tha=t tinshebo.
Lyöti hear-PFV=DIR crack
‘Lyöti hears a sharp crack.’
(14) Pevupulya küköatt lyinye nolyu le.
Pevupulya kükö-at=t lyinye nolyu le.
shopkeeper knock-IPFV=DIR weight stone LOC
‘The shopkeeper knocks a weight on the stone.’
3. Nouns
3.1 Animate and inanimate
Every noun belongs to one of two classes. Nouns ending in -a or -i are animate. Nouns ending in -e, -o or -u are inanimate. People, the Phong, animals and goddesses are usually animate, and things and places usually inanimate, but the class follows the ending whatever the meaning. A plum, yüli, ends in -i, so it is animate. The pronoun for it is sey “she, he”.
| Class | Endings | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Animate | -a, -i | lira “person”, fonga “Phong”, goya “fish”, züẅa “bee”, yüli “plum” |
| Inanimate | -e, -o, -u | wese “water”, sulo “moon”, zore “flower”, nyülyu “honey” |
(15) Züẅan lünyeatt yülipürunde zoren le.
Züẅan lünye-at=t yülipürun-de zoren le.
bee-PL hum-IPFV=DIR plum.tree-PL-GEN flower-PL LOC
‘Bees are humming in the blossoms of the plum trees.’
(16) Yüli lyoweatt, na sey lureatt salyu le.
Yüli lyowe-at=t, na sey lure-at=t salyu le.
plum ripen-IPFV=DIR and 3AN shine-IPFV=DIR sun LOC
‘The plum is ripening, and she shines in the sun.’
(17) Möli örethat yüli.
Möli öre-tha=t yüli.
Möli eat-PFV=DIR plum
‘Möli ate a plum.’
3.2 The plural
The plural adds -n to the noun: wu “bread, a loaf”, wun “loaves”; goya “fish”, goyan “fish (more than one)”. After a number the plural may be left out, because the number already says how many.
(18) Wuvometharan laleatt wun ẅizhun le.
Wuvometharan lale-at=t wun ẅizhun le.
baker-PL set.down-IPFV=DIR bread-PL lattice.window-PL LOC
‘The bakers are setting out loaves in the windows.’
(19) Liny goya towüatt nolyuẅode ge le.
Liny goya towü-at=t nolyuẅo-de ge le.
two fish swim-IPFV=DIR bridge-GEN shadow LOC
‘Two fish are swimming in the shadow of the stone bridge.’
(20) Yeyonyimun lureatt wese le.
Yeyonyimun lure-at=t wese le.
blue.roof-PL shine-IPFV=DIR water LOC
‘The blue roofs shine in the water.’
3.3 The genitive
The genitive suffix -de marks the owner, the source or the thing something belongs to. The genitive comes before the noun it belongs to, so a chain of genitives reads from the outside in, like English “Nadhi’s house’s courtyard”.
(21) Nadhide lyatede yo le, tru yülipüru olyiatt.
Nadhi-de lyate-de yo le, tru yülipüru olyi-at=t.
Nadhi-GEN house-GEN courtyard LOC one plum.tree grow-IPFV=DIR
‘In the courtyard of Nadhi’s house a plum tree grows.’
When several owners are joined by na, only the last of them takes -de:
(22) Weseenyiten pireusht pevun, dhen na yonyulende vörlun le, na ẅeshi telyi nolyuẅon thiatt son le.
Weseenyiten pire-ush=t pevun, dhen na yonyulen-de vörlun le, na ẅeshi telyi nolyuẅon thi-at=t son le.
canal-PL travel-HAB=DIR shop-PL garden-PL and lane-PL-GEN border-PL LOC and many small bridge-PL exist-IPFV=DIR 3IN.PL LOC
‘The canals run along the edges of the shops, the gardens and the lanes, and there are many small stone bridges over them.’
3.4 Postpositions
Other relations are shown by short words that follow the whole noun phrase: le “in, at, on”, ra “to, towards”, ve “from”, shi “with, by means of”, nye “to, for”, dho “with, together with” and sari “like”. They never take endings of their own.
| Postposition | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| le | in, at, on | yo le “in the courtyard” |
| ra | to, towards | lyanmu ra “to the market” |
| ve | from | ithire ve “from the mountains” |
| shi | with, by means of | lyave shi “by her voice” |
| nye | to, for | lyalli nye “for the hatchling” |
| dho | with, alongside | nayan dho “with us” |
| sari | like | sulo sari “like the moon” |
(23) Möli lyedöatt yülipüru le.
Möli lyedö-at=t yülipüru le.
Möli sleep-IPFV=DIR plum.tree LOC
‘Möli is asleep beside the plum tree.’
(24) Yülipüru nöraatt zoredhe le.
Yülipüru nöra-at=t zoredhe le.
plum.tree lean-IPFV=DIR flower.garden LOC
‘A plum tree leans in the flower garden.’
(25) Lyalli tuẅüatt seyde miya ra.
Lyalli tuẅü-at=t sey-de miya ra.
hatchling run-IPFV=DIR 3AN-GEN grandmother ALL
‘The hatchling is running to her grandmother.’
(26) Ẅeshi möton levöusht lyanmu ra: yülipürunde dhen ve, nyürinde vowen ve, ithire ve, üdede fu ve, na Ophalrhande niyon ve.
Ẅeshi möton levö-ush=t lyanmu ra: yülipürun-de dhen ve, nyürin-de vowen ve, ithire ve, üde-de fu ve, na Ophalrhan-de niyon ve.
many road-PL come-HAB=DIR market ALL plum.tree-PL-GEN garden-PL ABL artisan-PL-GEN village-PL ABL mountains ABL east-GEN coast ABL and Ophalrhan-GEN camp-PL ABL
‘Many roads come to the market: from the plum orchards, from the craftsmen’s villages, from the mountains, from the eastern coast, and from the camps of the Ophalrhan.’
(27) Möli rözethat Lisha lyave shi.
Möli röze-tha=t Lisha lyave shi.
Möli recognise-PFV=DIR Lisha voice INS
‘Möli knew Lisha by her voice.’
(28) Lyöti nayithat telyi lare Sokide lyalli nye.
Lyöti nayi-tha=t telyi lare Soki-de lyalli nye.
Lyöti give-PFV=DIR small kite Soki-GEN hatchling DAT
‘Lyöti gave a little kite to Soki’s hatchling.’
(29) Ophalrhan, pireim nayan dho.
Ophalrhan, pire-im nayan dho.
Ophalrhan travel-IMP 1PL COM
‘Ophalrhan, travel with us.’
(30) Lyuwenyimun lulureatt sulo sari.
Lyuwenyimun lu-lure-at=t sulo sari.
red.roof-PL RED-shine-IPFV=DIR moon SIM
‘The red roofs flicker like the moon.’
3.5 Making new nouns and adjectives
Several suffixes make nouns and adjectives from other words. -te makes a noun for an action or a quality: lyonya “dance” to lyonyate “dancing”. -thar-a makes a noun for a person who does something: tize “sing” to tizethara “singer”. pulya “keeper” makes the names of offices: tülhalmepulya “sluice keeper”. -nali means “without”: gihunali “without grain”. -osi means “to do with”: teosi “to do with lamps”. -fi means “making”: shethifi “warming”.
(31) Tülhalmepulya siwüatt, na lüyede wese dareatt ithire ve.
Tülhalmepulya siwü-at=t, na lüye-de wese dare-at=t ithire ve.
sluice.keeper whistle-IPFV=DIR and morning-GEN water descend-IPFV=DIR mountains ABL
‘The sluice keeper is whistling, and the morning water comes down from the mountains.’
(32) Tizethara nödeatt seyde sino yo le.
Tizethara nöde-at=t sey-de sino yo le.
singer test-IPFV=DIR 3AN-GEN flute courtyard LOC
‘A singer is testing her flute in the courtyard.’
(33) Lyöge le, treguket falete na towifru.
Lyöge le, tregu-k-e=t falete na towifru.
city LOC music-LINK-COP=DIR knowledge and joy
‘In the city, music is learning and pleasure.’
(34) Lyöti zeythat lyafüru; sulover gihunali lyavo.
Lyöti zey-tha=t lyafüru; sulo-v-e=r gihunali lyavo.
Lyöti see-PFV=DIR sky moon-LINK-COP=ASSUM grainless bowl
‘Lyöti looked at the sky; the moon might be a bowl without grain.’
(35) Pölyin zhülyuatt shethifi bürede vörlu le.
Pölyin zhülyu-at=t shethifi büre-de vörlu le.
child-PL rest-IPFV=DIR warming hearth-GEN border LOC
‘The children are resting beside the warming hearth.’
3.6 Compounds and the four directions
Two nouns can be joined into one word, with the head last: yüli “plum” + püru “tree” gives yülipüru “plum tree”, zore “flower” + lyize “field” gives zorelyize “flower meadow”. The directions are möge “north”, lüẅo “south”, üde “east” and zöku “west”. The points between are compounds: lüẅozöku “southwest”.
(36) Lüẅozöku le, weröro dhuleatt ithire ve baso ra.
Lüẅozöku le, weröro dhule-at=t ithire ve baso ra.
southwest LOC waterfall fall-IPFV=DIR mountains ABL valley ALL
‘In the southwest a waterfall drops from the mountains into the valley.’
3.7 Verbs with a noun inside
A verb can take a noun into itself: zore “flower” + tre “gather” gives zoretre “go flower-gathering”. The noun inside the verb is not a particular flower. The verb takes no object:
(37) Iẅe le, nenan na pölyin zoretreusht zorelyizen le.
Iẅe le, nenan na pölyin zoretre-ush=t zorelyizen le.
spring LOC woman-PL and child-PL gather.flowers-HAB=DIR meadow-PL LOC
‘In spring, women and children go flower-gathering in the meadows.’
(38) Nadhi zanesödheatt lyu le.
Nadhi zane-södhe-at=t lyu le.
Nadhi record.prayer-IPFV=DIR scroll LOC
‘Nadhi is writing a prayer on a scroll.’
4. Pronouns, demonstratives and numbers
4.1 Personal pronouns
Khélai pronouns tell animate from inanimate. They say nothing about whether a person is a woman or a man. sey can be translated “she”, “he” or “they”, and is also used for animals and for animate things such as a plum. Pronouns are often left out when it is clear who is meant.
| Person | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| First | nay | nayan |
| Second | du | dun |
| Third, animate | sey | seyan |
| Third, inanimate | so | son |
(39) “Du lenuthat mush?” “Nay lenuthat nyülyu.”
“Du lenu-tha=t mush?” “Nay lenu-tha=t nyülyu.”
2SG buy-PFV=DIR what 1SG buy-PFV=DIR honey
‘“What did you buy?” “I bought honey.”’
(40) Lyöti zeythat tru goya; sey towüatt wipun le.
Lyöti zey-tha=t tru goya; sey towü-at=t wipun le.
Lyöti see-PFV=DIR one fish 3AN swim-IPFV=DIR reed-PL LOC
‘Lyöti saw a fish; it was swimming among the reeds.’
(41) Lyöti zeythat tru lare; so vigaatt blüẅo le.
Lyöti zey-tha=t tru lare; so viga-at=t blüẅo le.
Lyöti see-PFV=DIR one kite 3IN fly-IPFV=DIR height LOC
‘Lyöti saw a kite; it was flying high up.’
4.2 This and that
sa “this”, su “that”, sani “these” and suni “those” come before the noun. Khélai has no word for “the” or “a”; tru “one” is used when a new thing comes into the story.
(42) Sa nyülyu nat nami, day su nyülyu nat yemnyi. Sa nyülyu na=t nami, day su nyülyu na=t yemnyi. this honey ATTR=DIR sweet but that honey ATTR=DIR bitter ‘This honey is sweet, but that honey is bitter.’
(43) Suni ralin darethat Ithire ve. Suni ralin dare-tha=t Ithire ve. those mammoth-PL descend-PFV=DIR mountains ABL ‘Those mammoths came down from the Íthir.’
4.3 Counting in twelves
Khélai counts in twelves. The numbers from one to twelve are tru, liny, a, nin, pre, ho, zu, bu, to, er, ha, thral. Higher numbers put the number of twelves before thral and the rest after it: liny thral is twenty-four, a thral nin is forty. A number comes before its noun. The noun need not be plural.
(44) Pevupulya yethat thral elo, na sey lalethat son nyu le.
Pevupulya ye-tha=t thral elo, na sey lale-tha=t son nyu le.
shopkeeper count-PFV=DIR twelve egg and 3AN set.down-PFV=DIR 3IN.PL basket LOC
‘The shopkeeper counted twelve eggs, and she put them in a basket.’
(45) Vlethara ödhüthat liny thral nimu.
Vlethara ödhü-tha=t liny thral nimu.
weaver sell-PFV=DIR two twelve guest.cloth
‘The weaver sold twenty-four guest-cloths.’
(46) Öma lenuthat a thral sino blöko ve.
Öma lenu-tha=t a thral sino blöko ve.
merchant buy-PFV=DIR three twelve flute caravan ABL
‘A merchant bought thirty-six flutes from the caravan.’
(47) A piyu le, lin fleusht nödho.
A piyu le, li-n fle-ush=t nödho.
three winter LOC priest-PL close-HAB=DIR screen
‘For three winters the priests closed the shutter.’
Ordinals add -ri: tru-ri “first”, liny-ri “second”, a-ri “third”.
(48) Linyri piyu le, lyavo freruthat.
Liny-ri piyu le, lyavo freru-tha=t.
two-ORD winter LOC bowl break-PFV=DIR
‘In the second winter, the bowl cracked.’
4.4 Every, many, few, other, same
loyi “every”, ẅeshi “many”, miri “a few, a little”, maẅi “other” and ami “same” come before the noun. A noun after loyi stays singular; after ẅeshi and miri, it is usually plural.
(49) Loyi lyate thiatt tru yo dho.
Loyi lyate thi-at=t tru yo dho.
every house exist-IPFV=DIR one courtyard COM
‘Every house has a courtyard.’
(50) Ẅeshi lyallin zhizhaatt lyüshu le, na miri ulyi fongan thenaatt se le.
Ẅeshi lyallin zhizha-at=t lyüshu le, na miri ulyi fongan thena-at=t se le.
many hatchling-PL play-IPFV=DIR grass LOC and little senior Phong-PL wait-IPFV=DIR bank LOC
‘Many hatchlings are playing in the grass, and a few old Phong are waiting on the bank.’
(51) Ami zore nölyüusht loyi iẅe le.
Ami zore nölyü-ush=t loyi iẅe le.
same flower bloom-HAB=DIR every spring LOC
‘The same flower blooms every spring.’
4.5 Times of day and seasons
The day is divided into watches: lüye the morning watch, lyöẅe noon, ẅöru the evening watch, dhu the night and nire is dusk. The year has four seasons: iẅe spring, mulyilu summer, fayo autumn and piyu winter. A time takes le, like a place, and usually stands at the head of the sentence.
(52) Nire le, dhöẅu pireusht lyatende nyimun ve lyafüru ra.
Nire le, dhöẅu pire-ush=t lyaten-de nyimun ve lyafüru ra.
dusk LOC smoke travel-HAB=DIR house-PL-GEN roof-PL ABL sky ALL
‘At dusk, smoke rises from the roofs of the houses into the sky.’
(53) Dhu le, pevupulyan lyedöusht seyande pevun le, na lyüẅin lyedöusht sonde lyilyen le.
Dhu le, pevupulyan lyedö-ush=t seyan-de pevun le, na lyüẅin lyedö-ush=t son-de lyilyen le.
night LOC shopkeeper-PL sleep-HAB=DIR 3AN.PL-GEN shop-PL LOC and dog-PL sleep-HAB=DIR 3IN.PL-GEN doorway-PL LOC
‘At night, the shopkeepers sleep in their shops, and the dogs sleep in the doorways.’
(54) Iẅe le, zorelyizen zheyuusht kölye, na nenan wifousht nimun weseenyiten le.
Iẅe le, zorelyizen zheyu-ush=t kölye, na nenan wifo-ush=t nimun weseenyiten le.
spring LOC meadow-PL become-HAB=DIR green and woman-PL wash-HAB=DIR guest.cloth-PL canal-PL LOC
‘In spring, the meadows turn green, and the women wash the guest-cloths in the canals.’
(55) Mulyilu le, liran ẅelyousht werörode lathi wese le, na pölyin towüusht weseenyiten le.
Mulyilu le, liran ẅelyo-ush=t weröro-de lathi wese le, na pölyin towü-ush=t weseenyiten le.
summer LOC person-PL bathe-HAB=DIR waterfall-GEN cold water LOC and child-PL swim-HAB=DIR canal-PL LOC
‘In summer, people bathe in the cold water of the waterfall, and the children swim in the canals.’
(56) Fayo le, ralin dareusht ithire ve, na vletharan lenuusht seyande fülbu.
Fayo le, ralin dare-ush=t ithire ve, na vletharan lenu-ush=t seyan-de fülbu.
autumn LOC mammoth-PL descend-HAB=DIR mountains ABL and weaver-PL buy-HAB=DIR 3AN.PL-GEN wool
‘In autumn, the mammoths come down from the mountains, and the weavers buy their wool.’
(57) Piyu le, hagewu nümuusht lyuwenyimun na yeyonyimun, na son nat ami.
Piyu le, hagewu nümu-ush=t lyuwenyimun na yeyonyimun, na son na=t ami.
winter LOC snow cover-HAB=DIR red.roof-PL and blue.roof-PL and 3IN.PL ATTR=DIR same
‘In winter, snow covers the red roofs and the blue roofs, and they look the same.’
5. Verbs
5.1 The parts of a verb
A Khélai verb is built in a fixed order: the root, then a suffix of aspect, then a suffix that changes who does what, then a clitic of evidence. Only the root and, in a statement, the aspect and the evidence are needed. The verb does not change for person or number.
| Root | Aspect | Valency | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| södhe “write” | -tha perfective | -u passive | =t direct |
(58) Karalo södhethaut lyu le.
Karalo södhe-tha-u=t lyu le.
clan.oath record-PFV-PASS=DIR scroll LOC
‘The clan oath was written on a scroll.’
5.2 Aspect
Aspect shows whether an event is going on, finished, repeated, starting or carried through to the end. Khélai has no tense. When the time matters it is given by a phrase such as lüye le “at the morning watch”.
| Form | Name | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| -at | imperfective | going on; a scene |
| -tha | perfective | a whole event, finished |
| -ush | habitual | done again and again; a custom |
| -isk | inceptive | beginning |
| -omp | completive | done to the end |
| re= | prospective | about to happen; intended |
| me= | resultative | the state left by an earlier event |
The imperfective describes a scene while it is going on:
(59) Vlethara lalyeatt zoren nimu le, na sey lünyeatt.
Vlethara lalye-at=t zoren nimu le, na sey lünye-at=t.
weaver embroider-IPFV=DIR flower-PL guest.cloth LOC and 3AN hum-IPFV=DIR
‘A weaver is embroidering flowers on a guest-cloth, and she is humming.’
(60) Töno tizeatt lyanmu le.
Töno tize-at=t lyanmu le.
bell sing-IPFV=DIR market LOC
‘The bell is singing (ringing) in the market.’
The perfective talks about one event as a whole:
(61) Shulẅo shöẅüthat, na tru lare vigathat baso ra.
Shulẅo shöẅü-tha=t, na tru lare viga-tha=t baso ra.
wind blow-PFV=DIR and one kite fly-PFV=DIR valley ALL
‘The wind blew, and a kite flew off towards the valley.’
(62) Soreyu blethaut.
Soreyu ble-tha-u=t.
sanctuary.gate open-PFV-PASS=DIR
‘The sanctuary gate was opened.’
The habitual tells what happens again and again. This is the aspect of customs, seasons and daily work:
(63) Lisha lyüwiusht mumo lyavo le.
Lisha lyüwi-ush=t mumo lyavo le.
Lisha serve.rice-HAB=DIR rice bowl LOC
‘Lisha serves rice into a bowl.’
(64) Vletharan vleusht lyesun lyanmu le.
Vletharan vle-ush=t lyesun lyanmu le.
weaver-PL weave-HAB=DIR thread-PL market LOC
‘The weavers weave threads in the market.’
(65) Iẅe le, türan levöusht rokge ra.
Iẅe le, türan levö-ush=t rokge ra.
spring LOC heron-PL come-HAB=DIR marsh ALL
‘In spring, the herons come to the marsh.’
The inceptive marks the start of something:
(66) Lüye le, saron nöreiskt, na liẅan tizeiskt.
Lüye le, saron nöre-isk=t, na liẅan tize-isk=t.
morning LOC star-PL fade-INCEP=DIR and bird-PL sing-INCEP=DIR
‘At the morning watch, the stars begin to fade, and the birds begin to sing.’
The completive says that something was done to the very end:
(67) Pölyi öreompt seyde üre, na sey löbithat elo.
Pölyi öre-omp=t sey-de üre, na sey löbi-tha=t elo.
child eat-COMPL=DIR 3AN-GEN soup and 3AN ask-PFV=DIR egg
‘The child finished all her soup, and she asked for an egg.’
The particles re= and me= stand before the verb in place of the aspect suffix. re= says that something is about to happen or is meant to. me= describes the state that something has left behind.
(68) Woshwun levöatt ithire ve; möve redhuler.
Woshwun levö-at=t ithire ve; möve re=dhule=r.
cloud-PL come-IPFV=DIR mountains ABL rain PROSP=fall=ASSUM
‘Clouds are coming from the mountains; it is about to rain.’
(69) Yülin melyowet.
Yülin me=lyowe=t.
plum-PL RES=ripen=DIR
‘The plums are ripe.’
(70) Lyuwenyimun menöres.
Lyuwenyimun me=nöre=s.
red.roof-PL RES=fade=INFER
‘The red roofs have faded, it seems.’
5.3 Who does what: the valency suffixes
Four suffixes come after the aspect and change the people taking part. -iv makes someone do something or makes something happen; -u leaves out the doer; -ely means “each other”; -om means “oneself”.
(71) Pölyin vigaativt laren üno le.
Pölyin viga-at-iv=t laren üno le.
child-PL fly-IPFV-CAUS=DIR kite-PL hill LOC
‘The children are flying kites on the hill.’
(72) Nadhi olyiushivt zoren seyde yo le.
Nadhi olyi-ush-iv=t zoren sey-de yo le.
Nadhi grow-HAB-CAUS=DIR flower-PL 3AN-GEN courtyard LOC
‘Nadhi grows flowers in her courtyard.’
(73) Wun dörothaut vene lüye.
Wun döro-tha-u=t vene lüye.
bread-PL bake-PFV-PASS=DIR before morning
‘The loaves were baked before the morning watch.’
(74) Liny ali nyönüthaelyt nolyuẅo le, na seyan shikothat.
Liny ali nyönü-tha-ely=t nolyuẅo le, na seyan shiko-tha=t.
two friend greet-PFV-RECP=DIR bridge LOC and 3AN.PL laugh-PFV=DIR
‘Two friends greeted each other on the bridge, and they laughed.’
(75) Türa zeyatomt avi wese le.
Türa zey-at-om=t avi wese le.
heron see-IPFV-REFL=DIR shallow water LOC
‘The heron is looking at itself in the shallow water.’
(76) Lyöti zeythat zorelye vipe le; sey zeyatomt wese le.
Lyöti zey-tha=t zorelye vipe le; sey zey-at-om=t wese le.
Lyöti see-PFV=DIR flower.image dye LOC 3AN see-IPFV-REFL=DIR water LOC
‘Lyöti saw a blossom’s image in the dye vat; she saw herself in the water.’
5.4 Must, may and want
Three particles at the end of a clause add necessity, possibility and wish: ta “must”, lu “may, might” and the “wants to, means to”. With ta and the the verb usually takes the prospective re=.
(77) Mima levöatt; nayan relyöder zorekalyo ta.
Mima levö-at=t; nayan re=lyöde=r zorekalyo ta.
guest come-IPFV=DIR 1PL PROSP=pour=ASSUM flower.syrup NEC
‘A guest is coming; we must pour the flower syrup.’
(78) Iẅe le, ithirede liran levöusht lyanmu ra, na seyan lyonyuusht nyülyu lu.
Iẅe le, ithire-de liran levö-ush=t lyanmu ra, na seyan lyonyu-ush=t nyülyu lu.
spring LOC mountains-GEN person-PL come-HAB=DIR market ALL and 3AN.PL bring-HAB=DIR honey POSS
‘In spring, the mountain people come to the market, and they may bring honey.’
(79) Lyöti relenur sino the.
Lyöti re=lenu=r sino the.
Lyöti PROSP=buy=ASSUM flute VOL
‘Lyöti wants to buy a flute.’
5.5 Commands
A command adds -im to the verb and has no evidential, since it says nothing about what anyone knows. It is spoken in a level, high voice. A prayer to a goddess uses the same form.
(80) Söpaim sa üre.
Söpa-im sa üre.
taste-IMP this soup
‘Taste this soup.’
(81) Ne tuẅüim nolyuẅo le!
Ne tuẅü-im nolyuẅo le!
NEG run-IMP bridge LOC
‘Don’t run on the bridge!’
(82) Threim pölyin.
Thre-im pölyin.
protect-IMP child-PL
‘Keep the children safe.’
5.6 Saying no
ne comes directly before the verb, or before re= or me=. It cannot stand before a noun. Khélai cannot say “not the sword, the bread”, and says instead:
(83) Nadhi ne zeythat zhore; sey zeythat wu.
Nadhi ne zey-tha=t zhore; sey zey-tha=t wu.
Nadhi NEG see-PFV=DIR sword 3AN see-PFV=DIR bread
‘Nadhi did not see a sword; she saw bread.’
(84) Sa piyu le, hagewu ne dhulethat lyöge le, day so dhulethat Ithire le.
Sa piyu le, hagewu ne dhule-tha=t lyöge le, day so dhule-tha=t Ithire le.
this winter LOC snow NEG fall-PFV=DIR city LOC but 3IN fall-PFV=DIR mountains LOC
‘This winter, no snow fell in the city, but it fell in the Íthir Mountains.’
(85) Pölyin ne relyedör; seyan honuatt kipen.
Pölyin ne re=lyedö=r; seyan honu-at=t kipen.
child-PL NEG PROSP=sleep=ASSUM 3AN.PL hear-IPFV=DIR drum-PL
‘The children are not going to sleep; they hear the drums.’
6. How the speaker knows: the evidentials
6.1 Four kinds of knowledge
A statement in Khélai says how the speaker knows it. Four clitics are attached to the verb, or to a copula, and one of them is chosen in every careful sentence. The clitic shows where the knowledge came from. A speaker who is unsure adds lu “may” (§5.4).
| Clitic | Name | The speaker … |
|---|---|---|
| =t | direct | saw, heard, tasted or did it herself |
| =n | reportative | was told it, or has it from a book or from tradition |
| =s | inferential | worked it out from what she can see |
| =r | assumptive | takes it for granted, or supposes it on general grounds |
With =t the speaker was there:
(86) Mumo nat shethi.
Mumo na=t shethi.
rice ATTR=DIR warm
‘The rice is warm.’
(87) Nay söpathat nyülyu; so nat nami.
Nay söpa-tha=t nyülyu; so na=t nami.
1SG taste-PFV=DIR honey 3IN ATTR=DIR sweet
‘I tasted the honey; it is sweet.’
(88) Nay ẅelyothat werörode wese le; so nat lathi.
Nay ẅelyo-tha=t weröro-de wese le; so na=t lathi.
1SG bathe-PFV=DIR waterfall-GEN water LOC 3IN ATTR=DIR cold
‘I bathed in the water of the waterfall; it was cold.’
With =n she was told:
(89) Narshaliyan pireatn lyire shi.
Narshaliyan pire-at=n lyire shi.
Narshaliya-PL travel-IPFV=REP lyira INS
‘The Narshalye travel by way of a lyira, so it is said.’
(90) Ithirede liran nareushn werörode vörlu le, na seyande pölyin towüushn lathi wese le.
Ithire-de liran nare-ush=n weröro-de vörlu le, na seyan-de pölyin towü-ush=n lathi wese le.
mountains-GEN person-PL dwell-HAB=REP waterfall-GEN border LOC and 3AN.PL-GEN child-PL swim-HAB=REP cold water LOC
‘The mountain people live by the waterfall, they say, and their children swim in the cold water.’
With =s she reasons from what is in front of her:
(91) Yode lyason nas nüẅi; möve dhulethas dhu le.
Yo-de lyason na=s nüẅi; möve dhule-tha=s dhu le.
courtyard-GEN floor-PL ATTR=INFER wet rain fall-PFV=INFER night LOC
‘The courtyard floor is wet; it must have rained in the night.’
(92) Lözhen thiisks zoredhe le.
Lözhen thi-isk=s zoredhe le.
weed-PL exist-INCEP=INFER flower.garden LOC
‘Weeds are coming up in the flower gardens, by the look of it.’
With =r she assumes:
(93) Ithirede blüẅo le, hagewu lowiatr.
Ithire-de blüẅo le, hagewu lowi-at=r.
mountains-GEN height LOC snow stay-IPFV=ASSUM
‘Up in the Íthir the snow will still be lying.’
6.2 Evidence inside a sentence
A clause after the “that” keeps its own evidential when it comes from someone else’s knowledge. In the sentence below Nadhi remembers for herself (=t), but what she remembers is something she was told (=n).
(94) Nadhi zheatt the seyde miya döroushn wu sa büre le.
Nadhi zhe-at=t the sey-de miya döro-ush=n wu sa büre le.
Nadhi remember-IPFV=DIR COMP 3AN-GEN grandmother bake-HAB=REP bread this hearth LOC
‘Nadhi remembers being told that her grandmother used to bake bread at this hearth.’
Quoted speech carries the evidentials of the person quoted. The narrator takes over again when the quotation ends.
(95) Lisha yayethat: “Lyavo freruthat linyri piyu le.”
Lisha yaye-tha=t: “Lyavo freru-tha=t liny-ri piyu le.”
Lisha say-PFV=DIR bowl break-PFV=DIR two-ORD winter LOC
‘Lisha says: “The bowl broke in the second winter.”’
6.3 One evidential for a chain
When two verbs share one subject and are known in the same way, the evidential can be put once, at the end (Chapter 9). The flowers below are seen shining and fading at the same moment. The =t covers both.
(96) Zoren lureat·r·nöreatt wese le.
Zoren lure-at=r=nöre-at=t wese le.
flower-PL shine-IPFV=SS.SIM=fade-IPFV=DIR water LOC
‘Flowers shine in the water even while they fade.’
6.4 How the clitics sound
The evidential clitics change their sound to suit the next word, though the spelling does not change. Before b, d, g =t is said [d], before a nasal [n], before a fricative [s], and before l, ly or r [r]. =n is said [m] before p, b, m, [ŋ] before k, g and [ɲ] before y. =s is said [z] before a voiced sound. =r is said [n] before a nasal and [l] before l. So pire-tha=t Nemore ra “travelled to Némorath” is said [pireθan nemore ra].
| Clitic | Next sound | Said as |
|---|---|---|
| =t | b, d, g | [d] |
| =t | m, n, ny | [n] |
| =t | a fricative | [s] |
| =t | l, ly, r | [r] |
| =n | p, b, m | [m] |
| =n | k, g | [ŋ] |
| =n | y | [ɲ] |
| =s | a voiced sound | [z] |
| =r | a nasal | [n] |
| =r | l | [l] |
7. Being, seeming and becoming
7.1 Three ways to say “is”
Where English has “is”, Khélai uses one of three words. thi says that something exists or is somewhere; it is an ordinary verb, with aspect and evidential. e says what something is. na says what something is like. The last two have no aspect, but they carry an evidential clitic.
| Word | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|
| thi | there is; is somewhere | nyülyu thi-at=t pöẅu le “there is honey in the jar” |
| e | is (a thing, a person) | Soki e=t fonga “Soki is a Phong” |
| na | is (of a quality) | üre na=t felyi “the soup is sour” |
(97) Nyülyu thiatt pöẅu le, na züẅa thiatt pöẅude vörlu le.
Nyülyu thi-at=t pöẅu le, na züẅa thi-at=t pöẅu-de vörlu le.
honey exist-IPFV=DIR jar LOC and bee exist-IPFV=DIR jar-GEN border LOC
‘There is honey in the jar, and there is a bee on the rim of the jar.’
(98) Zoredhe thiatt sore le.
Zoredhe thi-at=t sore le.
flower.garden exist-IPFV=DIR sanctuary LOC
‘There is a flower garden inside the sanctuary.’
(99) Soki et Lyötide ali.
Soki e=t Lyöti-de ali.
Soki EQU=DIR Lyöti-GEN friend
‘Soki is Lyöti’s friend.’
(100) Mölivet Lishade pölyi.
Möli-v-e=t Lisha-de pölyi.
Möli-LINK-COP=DIR Lisha-GEN child
‘Möli is Lisha’s child.’
(101) Üre nat felyi, day pötho nat nami.
Üre na=t felyi, day pötho na=t nami.
soup ATTR=DIR sour but steamed.cake ATTR=DIR sweet
‘The soup is sour, but the steamed cake is sweet.’
(102) Lyuwenotu–Yeyonotu nat vösi.
Lyuwenotu-yeyonotu na=t vösi.
City.of.Gables ATTR=DIR beautiful
‘The City of Red and Blue Gables is beautiful.’
7.2 More and less
There is no word for “more”. A quality is compared with na and the postposition ve “from”. Literally, honey is sweet “from” flower syrup.
(103) Nyülyu nat nami zorekalyo ve.
Nyülyu na=t nami zorekalyo ve.
honey ATTR=DIR sweet flower.syrup ABL
‘Honey is sweeter than flower syrup.’
(104) Weröro nat vöyi kipen ve.
Weröro na=t vöyi kipen ve.
waterfall ATTR=DIR loud drum-PL ABL
‘The waterfall is louder than the drums.’
7.3 Like
sari “like” follows the thing compared. After na it can make the whole predicate.
(105) Pevupulyade lyave nat kipe sari.
Pevupulya-de lyave na=t kipe sari.
shopkeeper-GEN voice ATTR=DIR drum SIM
‘The shopkeeper’s voice is like a drum.’
(106) Fayo le, dhöẅu nat müẅu sari baso le.
Fayo le, dhöẅu na=t müẅu sari baso le.
autumn LOC smoke ATTR=DIR moss SIM valley LOC
‘In autumn, the smoke in the valley is like moss.’
7.4 Becoming and making
zheyu “become” takes what something becomes as its object. vome “make” can take an adjective after its object: “make the stones bright”.
(107) Fayo le, yülipürunde vaẅun zheyuusht lyuwe.
Fayo le, yülipürun-de vaẅun zheyu-ush=t lyuwe.
autumn LOC plum.tree-PL-GEN leaf-PL become-HAB=DIR red
‘In autumn, the leaves of the plum trees turn red.’
(108) Möve vomethat lyögede nolyun luri.
Möve vome-tha=t lyöge-de nolyun luri.
rain make-PFV=DIR city-GEN stone-PL luminous
‘The rain made the stones of the city bright.’
8. Liaison
8.1 The hidden consonant
Some nouns once ended in a consonant that has since been lost. It is silent when the noun stands alone and is heard again in a few close places: before the copula e, after a genitive when the next word begins with a vowel, and after one of the few adjectives listed with a linker when the noun begins with a vowel. There are four of these linkers, -l-, -n-, -v- and -k-, and the one a noun takes has to be learned with the noun, as a dictionary shows it: liẅa (L) “bird”, lare (N) “kite”, nyülyu (V) “honey”, tregu (K) “music”. Most nouns have none.
(109) Tru liẅalet türa, na sey thenaatt höẅu le.
Tru liẅa-l-e=t türa, na sey thena-at=t höẅu le.
one bird-LINK-COP=DIR heron and 3AN wait-IPFV=DIR ford LOC
‘One of the birds is a heron, and it is waiting at the ford.’
(110) Larenet lyallide zhizhate.
Lare-n-e=t lyalli-de zhizhate.
kite-LINK-COP=DIR hatchling-GEN game
‘The kite is the hatchling’s plaything.’
(111) Nyülyuvet züẅande lyözo.
Nyülyu-v-e=t züẅan-de lyözo.
honey-LINK-COP=DIR bee-PL-GEN wealth
‘Honey is the bees’ wealth.’
(112) Lyöge le, treguket falete na towifru.
Lyöge le, tregu-k-e=t falete na towifru.
city LOC music-LINK-COP=DIR knowledge and joy
‘In the city, music is learning and pleasure.’
8.2 After a genitive
A genitive followed by a noun beginning with a vowel brings out the linker of the owner. The genitive suffix comes first and the linker after it.
(113) Liẅadelelo thiatt lyüshu le.
Liẅa-de-l-elo thi-at=t lyüshu le.
bird-GEN-LINK-egg exist-IPFV=DIR grass LOC
‘A bird’s egg is lying in the grass.’
(114) Fongadenenyu yöneatt wipun le.
Fonga-de-n-enyu yöne-at=t wipun le.
Phong-GEN-LINK-boat float-IPFV=DIR reed-PL LOC
‘A Phong’s boat is drifting among the reeds.’
8.3 Where there is no linker
A verb that begins with a vowel does not bring out a linker, and nor does a postposition. A noun without a linker class never takes one, whatever follows.
(115) Möli örethat yüli.
Möli öre-tha=t yüli.
Möli eat-PFV=DIR plum
‘Möli ate a plum.’
(116) Sa zore er yülipürude zore.
Sa zore e=r yülipüru-de zore.
this flower EQU=ASSUM plum.tree-GEN flower
‘This flower must be a plum blossom.’
A pause also stops the linker. In Vüwu-v-e=r möto the noun and the copula are said in one breath and the linker is heard. In Vüwu, e=r möto there is a pause after vüwu, no linker is heard. The rainbow is named first as the topic.
(117) Vüwuver Ophalrhande möto.
Vüwu-v-e=r Ophalrhan-de möto.
rainbow-LINK-COP=ASSUM Ophalrhan-GEN road
‘The rainbow might be Ophalrhan’s road.’
(118) Vüwu, er Ophalrhande möto.
Vüwu, e=r Ophalrhan-de möto.
rainbow EQU=ASSUM Ophalrhan-GEN road
‘The rainbow: it might be Ophalrhan’s road.’
9. Chains of verbs
9.1 One thing after another
Two verbs with the same subject can be joined by =l=, which means that the second event follows the first. Each verb keeps its own evidential in careful prose.
(119) Wuvomethara krethat·l·söpathat tru wu.
Wuvomethara kre-tha=t=l=söpa-tha=t tru wu.
baker lift-PFV=DIR=SS.SEQ=taste-PFV=DIR one bread
‘The baker picked up a loaf and tasted it.’
(120) Möli lyilotha·l·vögethat.
Möli lyilo-tha=l=vöge-tha=t.
Möli blink-PFV=SS.SEQ=smile-PFV=DIR
‘Möli blinked, then smiled.’
9.2 At the same time
=r= joins two verbs whose events happen together. It sounds like the assumptive =r, but it always stands between two verbs.
(121) Pölyin tuẅüatt·r·shikoatt.
Pölyin tuẅü-at=t=r=shiko-at=t.
child-PL run-IPFV=DIR=SS.SIM=laugh-IPFV=DIR
‘The children run, laughing.’
(122) Vlethara vleat·r·yayeatt.
Vlethara vle-at=r=yaye-at=t.
weaver weave-IPFV=SS.SIM=say-IPFV=DIR
‘The weaver weaves and talks.’
9.3 One evidential for the chain
When the subject and the source of knowledge stay the same, the evidential may be put only on the last verb.
(123) Lyöti tumetha·l·zhülyuthat ünode blüẅo le.
Lyöti tume-tha=l=zhülyu-tha=t üno-de blüẅo le.
Lyöti climb-PFV=SS.SEQ=rest-PFV=DIR hill-GEN height LOC
‘Lyöti climbed to the top of the hill and rested there.’
9.4 Breaking the chain
A chain must break when the subject changes, when the source of knowledge changes, or when a new speaker begins. A new subject is named, and a semicolon or na marks the break.
(124) Nadhi wöpethat nimu; Lyöti slethat so.
Nadhi wöpe-tha=t nimu; Lyöti sle-tha=t so.
Nadhi fold-PFV=DIR guest.cloth Lyöti carry-PFV=DIR 3IN
‘Nadhi folds the guest-cloth; Lyöti carries it away.’
(125) Lisha dörothat pötho; Möli örethat so.
Lisha döro-tha=t pötho; Möli öre-tha=t so.
Lisha bake-PFV=DIR steamed.cake Möli eat-PFV=DIR 3IN
‘Lisha baked a steamed cake; Möli ate it.’
10. Phrases and clauses
10.1 The order of words
The usual order is subject, verb, object, and then the phrases of place and manner. A phrase that sets the scene, such as a time of day or a season, often comes first, followed by a comma.
(126) Ulyi nena lalyeatt türa nimu le.
Ulyi nena lalye-at=t türa nimu le.
senior woman embroider-IPFV=DIR heron guest.cloth LOC
‘An old woman is embroidering a heron on a guest-cloth.’
(127) Lüye le, yeyonyimun lureatt Nemore le.
Lüye le, yeyonyimu-n lure-at=t Nemore le.
morning LOC blue.roof-PL shine-IPFV=DIR Némorath LOC
‘At the morning watch, the blue-roofed houses shine in Némorath.’
10.2 The noun phrase
Inside a noun phrase the order is: demonstrative, number, adjective, noun. A genitive comes before its noun, and a relative clause after it.
(128) Sani liny telyi goya towüatt pöẅu le.
Sani liny telyi goya towü-at=t pöẅu le.
these two small fish swim-IPFV=DIR jar LOC
‘These two little fish are swimming in the jar.’
10.3 Relative clauses
A relative clause begins with ke and follows its noun. The noun is left out of the clause when it is the subject or the object.
(129) Lyöti lenuthat sino ke tru fonga vomethat.
Lyöti lenu-tha=t sino ke tru fonga vome-tha=t.
Lyöti buy-PFV=DIR flute REL one Phong make-PFV=DIR
‘Lyöti bought a flute that a Phong had made.’
(130) Lyöti zeythat fonga ke zhareatt wesede vöra.
Lyöti zey-tha=t fonga ke zhare-at=t wese-de vöra.
Lyöti see-PFV=DIR Phong REL worship-IPFV=DIR water-GEN goddess
‘Lyöti saw a Phong who worshipped the water goddess.’
When the noun is an owner, or goes with a postposition, a pronoun stands in for it inside the clause.
(131) Nay giyethat yo ke tru yülipüru olyiatt so le.
Nay giye-tha=t yo ke tru yülipüru olyi-at=t so le.
1SG find-PFV=DIR courtyard REL one plum.tree grow-IPFV=DIR 3IN LOC
‘I found a courtyard where a plum tree grows.’
(132) Tru vey liny lyeyo le, blöko lyonyuusht ziyu ke sode melyo ne thiatt lyöge le.
Tru vey liny lyeyo le, blöko lyonyu-ush=t ziyu ke so-de melyo ne thi-at=t lyöge le.
one or two year LOC caravan bring-HAB=DIR instrument REL 3IN-GEN name NEG exist-IPFV=DIR city LOC
‘Once or twice a year a caravan brings an instrument that has no name in the city.’
10.4 Clauses after “that”
A clause that says what someone knows, hears, remembers or says begins with the.
(133) Lyöti honuthat the türan levöthan röli rokge ra.
Lyöti honu-tha=t the türan levö-tha=n röli rokge ra.
Lyöti hear-PFV=DIR COMP heron-PL come-PFV=REP again marsh ALL
‘Lyöti heard that the herons had come back to the marsh.’
10.5 Questions
A yes-or-no question has the same words as a statement and a rising voice at the end. A question word appears where the answer would be.
| Word | Meaning |
|---|---|
| hal | who |
| mush | what |
| vö | where |
| she | when |
| dha | why |
| ẅe | how |
| preny | how many |
(134) Du honuatt kipen?
Du honu-at=t kipen?
2SG hear-IPFV=DIR drum-PL
‘Do you hear the drums?’
(135) Hal dörothat sa wu?
Hal döro-tha=t sa wu?
who bake-PFV=DIR this bread
‘Who baked this bread?’
(136) Blöko relevör she?
Blöko re=levö=r she?
caravan PROSP=come=ASSUM when
‘When is the caravan coming?’
(137) Pölyin shikoatt dha?
Pölyin shiko-at=t dha?
child-PL laugh-IPFV=DIR why
‘Why are the children laughing?’
(138) Preny elo thiatt nyu le?
Preny elo thi-at=t nyu le?
how.many egg exist-IPFV=DIR basket LOC
‘How many eggs are in the basket?’
10.6 And, but, or, because
na “and”, day “but” and vey “or” join words and clauses. mena “because” begins a clause.
(139) Lyöti tizeatt, day Soki lyonyaatt.
Lyöti tize-at=t, day Soki lyonya-at=t.
Lyöti sing-IPFV=DIR but Soki dance-IPFV=DIR
‘Lyöti is singing, but Soki is dancing.’
(140) Pölyi ne lyedöatt, mena sulo lureatt seyde ẅizhu le.
Pölyi ne lyedö-at=t, mena sulo lure-at=t sey-de ẅizhu le.
child NEG sleep-IPFV=DIR because moon shine-IPFV=DIR 3AN-GEN lattice.window LOC
‘The child is not asleep, because the moon is shining in her window.’
10.7 Before, after, while
vene “before”, gelen “after” and nure “while” begin a clause of time, which usually comes first. They can also stand before a noun of time, or before so “that”: gelen so “after that”, nure so “meanwhile”.
(141) Vene salyu daslyeusht, wuvometharan ümeusht seyande büren, na eli memülmin tuẅüusht·r·sleusht lyen lyatende yonyulen le.
Vene salyu daslye-ush=t, wuvometharan üme-ush=t seyan-de büren, na eli memülmin tuẅü-ush=t=r=sle-ush=t lyen lyaten-de yonyulen le.
before sun surface-HAB=DIR baker-PL ignite-HAB=DIR 3AN.PL-GEN hearth-PL and young courier-PL run-HAB=DIR=SS.SIM=carry-HAB=DIR tablet-PL house-PL-GEN lane-PL LOC
‘Before the sun comes up, the bakers light their hearths, and young couriers run through the lanes between the houses carrying slates.’
(142) Nure möve dhuleatt, pölyin zhizhaatt ẅizhude vörlu le.
Nure möve dhule-at=t, pölyin zhizha-at=t ẅizhu-de vörlu le.
while rain fall-IPFV=DIR child-PL play-IPFV=DIR lattice.window-GEN border LOC
‘While the rain is falling, the children play by the window.’
(143) Gelen nire, liran plokuusht goyan se le.
Gelen nire, liran ploku-ush=t goyan se le.
after dusk person-PL roast-HAB=DIR fish-PL bank LOC
‘After dusk, people grill fish on the bank.’
10.8 If
A condition begins with shele “if”, and the result may begin with ru “then”.
(144) Shele shulẅo shöẅüatt lüẅo ve, ru lyöge lüweusht zoren sari.
Shele shulẅo shöẅü-at=t lüẅo ve, ru lyöge lüwe-ush=t zoren sari.
if wind blow-IPFV=DIR south ABL then city smell-HAB=DIR flower-PL SIM
‘If the wind blows from the south, the city smells of flowers.’
(145) Shele liny rulbelyate ledöatt, ru lyan nareusht maẅi lyate le lu.
Shele liny rulbelyate ledö-at=t, ru lyan nare-ush=t maẅi lyate le lu.
if two maternal.house consent-IPFV=DIR then partner-PL dwell-HAB=DIR other house LOC POSS
‘If both houses agree, the couple may live in another house.’
10.9 Nobody and nothing
Khélai has no words for “nobody” or “nothing”. It says “there is no person who …”, “there is no thing that …”. When the person is the subject anyway, ne before the verb is enough: Lira ne lyöpe-ush=t rathido vrashe shi “Nobody gains standing by revenge”.
(146) Lira ne thiatt ke faleatt yonyulede ko sey sari.
Lira ne thi-at=t ke fale-at=t yonyule-de ko sey sari.
person NEG exist-IPFV=DIR REL know-IPFV=DIR lane-GEN tradition 3AN SIM
‘Nobody knows the history of the street as she does.’
(147) So ne thiatt ke lüweatt lyöre sari.
So ne thi-at=t ke lüwe-at=t lyöre sari.
3IN NEG exist-IPFV=DIR REL smell-IPFV=DIR Opal.Mead SIM
‘Nothing smells like opal mead.’
10.10 Topic and focus
shey puts a topic in front of the sentence. A pronoun then takes its place inside. kom follows a word that is picked out against others, much as English stresses a word. A focused phrase may be moved to the front of the clause. A phrase of place or time moved there is followed by a comma.
(148) Sulo shey, so lureatt yonyule le.
Sulo shey, so lure-at=t yonyule le.
moon TOP 3IN shine-IPFV=DIR lane LOC
‘As for the moon, it is shining in the narrow lane.’
(149) Lyöti kom dörothat sa wu.
Lyöti kom döro-tha=t sa wu.
Lyöti FOC bake-PFV=DIR this bread
‘It was Lyöti who baked this bread.’
(150) Sa yonyule le kom, öman ödhüusht nyülyu.
Sa yonyule le kom, öman ödhü-ush=t nyülyu.
this lane LOC FOC merchant-PL sell-HAB=DIR honey
‘It is in this lane that the merchants sell honey.’
10.11 Adjectives after the verb
A few adjectives of size, length and speed can follow the verb phrase and say how something is done: rori “long”, miri “little”, muwi “slow”. Other adjectives are not used in this way.
(151) Ulyi rali pireatt muwi.
Ulyi rali pire-at=t muwi.
senior mammoth travel-IPFV=DIR slow
‘The old mammoth walks slowly.’
(152) Lisha thenathat soreyu le rori.
Lisha thena-tha=t soreyu le rori.
Lisha wait-PFV=DIR sanctuary.gate LOC long
‘Lisha waited a long time at the sanctuary gate.’
10.12 What a thing is made of
The ablative ve “from” also names the material a thing is made of.
(153) Sa lare vomethaut labo ve.
Sa lare vome-tha-u=t labo ve.
this kite make-PFV-PASS=DIR paper ABL
‘This kite was made of paper.’
(154) Nimu vlethaut lyuwe fülbu ve.
Nimu vle-tha-u=t lyuwe fülbu ve.
guest.cloth weave-PFV-PASS=DIR red wool ABL
‘The guest-cloth was woven of red wool.’
11. Household law
The law of the maternal houses is spoken in the habitual, because it describes what is always done.
(166) Pölyi örlyeusht seyde rulbelyate, rulbehulyo na anyeshölyu sözhewi ve.
Pölyi örlye-ush=t sey-de rulbelyate, rulbehulyo na anyeshölyu sözhewi ve.
child receive-HAB=DIR 3AN-GEN maternal.house house.name and property mother ABL
‘A child receives house, house name and property from the mother.’
(167) Shele liny rulbelyate ledöatt, ru lyan nareusht maẅi lyate le lu.
Shele liny rulbelyate ledö-at=t, ru lyan nare-ush=t maẅi lyate le lu.
if two maternal.house consent-IPFV=DIR then partner-PL dwell-HAB=DIR other house LOC POSS
‘If both houses agree, the couple may live in another house.’
(168) Shele lira lenuatt pöẅu lyanmu le, ru sey dhaleusht sode dösu vene ẅöru ta.
Shele lira lenu-at=t pöẅu lyanmu le, ru sey dhale-ush=t so-de dösu vene ẅöru ta.
if person buy-IPFV=DIR jar market LOC then 3AN pay-HAB=DIR 3IN-GEN price before evening NEC
‘If someone buys a jar in the market, she must pay its price before the evening watch.’
12. Keeping a topic going
Once something has been named, a writer can keep it in view with pronouns over several clauses without naming it again, so long as nothing else of the same class comes in between.
(173) Sokide lyalli zeythat vöwo; sey tumethat so; sey ẅekothat seyde nyon; na sey shikothat.
Soki-de lyalli zey-tha=t vöwo; sey tume-tha=t so; sey ẅeko-tha=t sey-de nyon; na sey shiko-tha=t.
Soki-GEN hatchling see-PFV=DIR swing 3AN climb-PFV=DIR 3IN 3AN wave-PFV=DIR 3AN-GEN wing-PL and 3AN laugh-PFV=DIR
‘Soki’s hatchling saw the swing; she climbed onto it; she waved her wings; and she laughed.’
13. Rarer grammatical forms
13.1 Like and is
A simile uses sari “like”. A metaphor uses the copula e, usually with the assumptive =r:
(174) Ulyi rali yöpüatt lyüshu le üno sari.
Ulyi rali yöpü-at=t lyüshu le üno sari.
senior mammoth stand-IPFV=DIR grass LOC hill SIM
‘The old mammoth stands in the grass like a hill.’
(175) Sulover lilyẅe.
Sulo-v-e=r lilyẅe.
moon-LINK-COP=ASSUM path
‘The moon might be a road.’
(176) Sulover fe.
Sulo-v-e=r fe.
moon-LINK-COP=ASSUM cup
‘The moon might be a cup.’
13.2 Images: -lye
-lye makes a noun for the image of something: a reflection, a likeness, or what is left of a sound or a touch. sulolye is the moon seen in water, tönolye the sound of a bell after it has been struck, and nyöẅolye the warmth still felt after a hand has been taken away.
(177) Sulo ne thiatt lyafüru le.
Sulo ne thi-at=t lyafüru le.
moon NEG exist-IPFV=DIR sky LOC
‘There is no moon in the sky.’
(178) Sulolye thiatt wese le.
Sulolye thi-at=t wese le.
moon.image exist-IPFV=DIR water LOC
‘The moon’s image is in the water.’
(179) Lyöti zeythat vüwulye weseenyite le.
Lyöti zey-tha=t vüwulye weseenyite le.
Lyöti see-PFV=DIR rainbow.image canal LOC
‘Lyöti saw the rainbow’s image in the canal.’
(180) Nyöẅo lowiatt nimu le.
Nyöẅo lowi-at=t nimu le.
warmth stay-IPFV=DIR guest.cloth LOC
‘Warmth stays in the guest-cloth.’
(181) Töno tizethat; tönolye lowiatt.
Töno tize-tha=t; tönolye lowi-at=t.
bell sing-PFV=DIR after-sound stay-IPFV=DIR
‘The bell rang; its note hangs on.’
(182) Wöwo lowiatt fe le.
Wöwo lowi-at=t fe le.
steam stay-IPFV=DIR cup LOC
‘Steam hangs over the cup.’
(183) Malo lowiatt sore le.
Malo lowi-at=t sore le.
incense stay-IPFV=DIR sanctuary LOC
‘The smell of resin stays in the sanctuary.’
13.3 Persons: -ya
-ya turns a thing into a person for the length of a poem or a story. The new noun is animate and is taken up by sey.
(184) Weseya zeyatr lyöge.
Weseya zey-at=r lyöge.
water.PERS see-IPFV=ASSUM city
‘The water, like a person, may be watching the city.’
(185) Ẅöru le, shulẅoya küköatr ẅizhu le, na sey löbiatr lyamu.
Ẅöru le, shulẅoya kükö-at=r ẅizhu le, na sey löbi-at=r lyamu.
evening LOC wind.PERS knock-IPFV=ASSUM lattice.window LOC and 3AN ask-IPFV=ASSUM mat
‘In the evening, the Wind knocks at the window, it seems, and asks for a mat.’
13.4 Reduplication
A verb can repeat the start of its first syllable to show that something happens in small, repeated touches: lure “shine”, lu-lure “flicker”; nöre “fade”, nö-nöre “fade little by little”. It is found mostly in poems, fairytales and other childlike language.
(186) Büre le, fare lulureatt.
Büre le, fare lu-lure-at=t.
hearth LOC fire RED-shine-IPFV=DIR
‘In the hearth the fire flickers.’
(187) Wüne nönöreatt salyu le.
Wüne nö-nöre-at=t salyu le.
dew.bead RED-fade-IPFV=DIR sun LOC
‘The dew is fading, little by little, in the sun.’
13.5 Yes and no
Songs may set a negative clause beside a positive one with the same subject. A refrain repeats a whole clause.
(188) Lyalli ne örethat üre; sey örethat pötho.
Lyalli ne öre-tha=t üre; sey öre-tha=t pötho.
hatchling NEG eat-PFV=DIR soup 3AN eat-PFV=DIR steamed.cake
‘The hatchling did not eat the soup; she ate the steamed cake.’
(189) Ophalrhan, pireim nayan dho.
Ophalrhan, pire-im nayan dho.
Ophalrhan travel-IMP 1PL COM
‘Ophalrhan, travel with us.’
(190) Threim pölyin. Thre-im pölyin. protect-IMP child-PL ‘Keep the children safe.’
13.6 The point of view in a passage
Because every clause has an evidential, a narrator can move from what she saw to what she supposes or has been told without saying so in separate words. In the four sentences below she sees a caravan, supposes that the mammoths are tired, and repeats what she has heard about the snow.
(191) Ẅöru le, nay zeythat blöko nolyuẅo le.
Ẅöru le, nay zey-tha=t blöko nolyuẅo le.
evening LOC 1SG see-PFV=DIR caravan bridge LOC
‘In the evening, I saw a caravan on the bridge.’
(192) Blöko pirethat lyanmu ve möge ra.
Blöko pire-tha=t lyanmu ve möge ra.
caravan travel-PFV=DIR market ABL north ALL
‘The caravan went from the market towards the north.’
(193) Ralin nar löpi. Ralin na=r löpi. mammoth-PL ATTR=ASSUM tired ‘The mammoths will be tired.’
13.7 Festivals
A habitual verb describes what is done at a festival every year; an imperfective describes one festival while it is going on.
(194) Ithode dhu le, loyi rulbelyate dörousht pötho, na pölyin öreusht son nolyuẅon le.
Itho-de dhu le, loyi rulbelyate döro-ush=t pötho, na pölyin öre-ush=t son nolyuẅon le.
festival-GEN night LOC every maternal.house bake-HAB=DIR steamed.cake and child-PL eat-HAB=DIR 3IN.PL bridge-PL LOC
‘On the night of the festival, every maternal house bakes a steamed cake, and the children eat them on the bridges.’
(195) Kipen nat vöyi, sinon siwüatt, na ulyi nenan lyonyaatt muwi lyonyate.
Kipen na=t vöyi, sinon siwü-at=t, na ulyi nenan lyonya-at=t muwi lyonyate.
drum-PL ATTR=DIR loud flute-PL whistle-IPFV=DIR and senior woman-PL dance-IPFV=DIR slow dance
‘The drums are loud, the flutes are whistling, and the old women are dancing a slow dance.’
14. Ways of speaking
14.1 In prayer
A prayer addresses a goddess in the imperative, the form used to ask a neighbour for something. The goddess is named first.
(196) Ophalrhan, threim Sokide lyalli möto le.
Ophalrhan, thre-im Soki-de lyalli möto le.
Ophalrhan protect-IMP Soki-GEN hatchling road LOC
‘Ophalrhan, keep Soki’s hatchling safe on the road.’
(197) Lyölulen Ophalrhan.
Lyölu-l-e=n Ophalrhan.
river.shell-LINK-COP=REP Ophalrhan
‘The river shell is Ophalrhan, so they say.’
14.2 The Phong
The Phong play games with words and with things. Hyperboreans often cannot tell whether a Phong is joking. The Phong have the ability to predict the future through symbolic play. This ability is far from perfect. They also like playing for its own sake.
(198) Fonga nayiusht lyave ẅiwen nye, danthousht lyilye dho, minausht wipudelenyu dho seyde miya sari, na gelen so löbiusht lüyede gihufüme.
Fonga nayi-ush=t lyave ẅiwen nye, dantho-ush=t lyilye dho, mina-ush=t wipu-de-l-enyu dho sey-de miya sari, na gelen so löbi-ush=t lüye-de gihufüme.
Phong give-HAB=DIR voice pebble-PL DAT dispute-HAB=DIR doorway COM speak-HAB=DIR reed-GEN-LINK-boat COM 3AN-GEN grandmother SIM and after 3IN ask-HAB=DIR morning-GEN grain.cake
‘A Phong gives voices to pebbles, argues with a doorway, talks to a reed boat as if it were her grandmother, and then asks for her breakfast.’
(199) Liny fonga vomeusht fe dela zhizhate le lu; seyan danthoushelyt the hal renyüdhör sey nye, na seyan pireushivt sey enyite le, vaẅu le.
Liny fonga vome-ush=t fe dela zhizhate le lu; seyan dantho-ush-ely=t the hal re=nyüdhö=r sey nye, na seyan pire-ush-iv=t sey enyite le, vaẅu le.
two Phong make-HAB=DIR cup monarch game LOC POSS 3AN.PL dispute-HAB-RECP=DIR COMP who PROSP=serve=ASSUM 3AN DAT and 3AN.PL travel-HAB-CAUS=DIR 3AN canal LOC leaf LOC
‘Two Phong may make a cup a monarch in a game; they argue about who is to serve her, and they send her down a canal on a leaf.’
(200) Pölyin shikoatt.
Pölyin shiko-at=t.
child-PL laugh-IPFV=DIR
‘The children laugh.’
(201) Fongali shikoatt.
Fongali shiko-at=t.
Phong.priest laugh-IPFV=DIR
‘The Phong priest laughs.’
14.3 At home
At home people speak in short sentences, and evidentials may be left out. When one is used it is usually =t:
(202) “Hal blethat ẅizhu?” “Shulẅo kom blethat so.”
“Hal ble-tha=t ẅizhu?” “Shulẅo kom ble-tha=t so.”
who open-PFV=DIR lattice.window wind FOC open-PFV=DIR 3IN
‘“Who opened the window?” “It was the wind that opened it.”’
(203) Ne zezhiim lyüẅi!
Ne zezhi-im lyüẅi!
NEG tease-IMP dog
‘Don’t tease the dog!’
(204) Ulyi nena siwüthat, na lyüẅi levöthat sey ra.
Ulyi nena siwü-tha=t, na lyüẅi levö-tha=t sey ra.
senior woman whistle-PFV=DIR and dog come-PFV=DIR 3AN ALL
‘The old woman whistled, and the dog came to her.’
(205) Karasözhewin shikothat.
Karasözhewi-n shiko-tha=t.
clan.mother-PL laugh-PFV=DIR
‘The clan mothers burst out laughing.’
15. Some sound changes
15.1 From Proto–Hyperborean (ʃir) to Khélai
Khélai descends from Proto-Hyperborean (ʃir), the language of the people who came down in the Ark. Most of the changes are regular. The ejective stops became plain stops, the glottal stop was lost, x became h, the central vowels moved forward, and l, n and z before j became the palatal sounds ly, ny and zh. u and o next to palatal sounds became ü and ö, which is why so many Khélai words have them. Consonants lost at the ends of words left behind the linkers of Chapter 8.
| Proto-ʃir | Khélai | Meaning | Change |
|---|---|---|---|
| prakan | prage (N) | Ark | k between vowels became g; the final n was lost but comes back as the N-linker, and the word took the ending -e |
| vom | vome | make | a vowel was added to the root |
| zej | zey | see | the final j stayed, written y |
| pir, fal | pire, fale | travel, know | the same |
| xal | hal | who | x became h |
| xa | ha | eleven | x became h |
| muʃ | mush | what | regular; ʃ is written sh |
| preɲ | preny | how many | regular; ɲ is written ny |
| -ux | -u | passive suffix | x became h, and the final h was then lost |
15.2 From Khélai to Toukanta
Toukanta, or Southern Cant, is a later language of the south. In Toukanta a final y became the second half of a diphthong, stressed e and u broke into two vowels, th and dh became s and z, h was lost, and so were most stops and fricatives at the ends of syllables, though nasals and liquids stayed. The evidentials became suffixes on the verb, and the linkers grew into a larger system that also tracks a change of subject.
| Khélai | Toukanta | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| nay | nai | I |
| sey | sei | she, he |
| day | dai | but |
| vey | vei | or |
| mena | məina | because |
| gelen | gəilən | after |
| vene | vəinə | before |
| ru | ɾou | then |
| nure | nouɾə | while |
Abbreviations
| Gloss | Meaning |
|---|---|
| 1SG, 1PL | I, we |
| 2SG, 2PL | you |
| 3AN, 3AN.PL | she, he, they (animate) |
| 3IN, 3IN.PL | it, they (inanimate) |
| ABL | ablative ve “from” |
| ALL | allative ra “to” |
| ASSUM | assumptive =r |
| ATTR | attributive copula na |
| CAUS | causative -iv |
| COM | comitative dho “with” |
| COMP | complementiser the “that” |
| COMPL | completive -omp |
| COP | copula e after a linker |
| DAT | dative nye “to, for” |
| DIR | direct evidential =t |
| EQU | equational copula e |
| FOC | focus kom |
| GEN | genitive -de |
| HAB | habitual -ush |
| IMP | imperative -im |
| INCEP | inceptive -isk |
| INFER | inferential =s |
| INS | instrumental shi |
| IPFV | imperfective -at |
| LINK | linker -l-, -n-, -v-, -k- |
| LOC | locative le |
| NEC | necessity ta |
| NEG | negative ne |
| ORD | ordinal -ri |
| PASS | passive -u |
| PERS | person-making -ya |
| PFV | perfective -tha |
| PL | plural -n |
| POSS | possibility lu |
| PROSP | prospective re= |
| RECP | reciprocal -ely |
| RED | repeated first syllable |
| REFL | reflexive -om |
| REL | relative ke |
| REP | reportative =n |
| RES | resultative me= |
| SIM | sari “like” |
| SS.SEQ | same subject, one after the other =l= |
| SS.SIM | same subject, at the same time =r= |
| TOP | topic shey |
| VOL | volitional the “wants to” |
