Update: First combined draft with additional material.
Use this script to generate vocabulary: https://75vwdt.csb.app/
Ligurian (Greek Λίγυες, Latin Ligurēs; natively Ligos) is an Indo-European language spoken in the city of Ligos, on the site of present-day Istanbul. Noun ligā (f.) = “tongue, binding speech.” In a parallel dimension, Ligurian never went extinct. Despite being conquered by Greeks several times during their wars with the Persians and Medes, the Ancient Ligurians still rule the Kingdom of the Strait (Rezā Dorās, Heart Speech Reazō-yō Nuorō̃).
Ligos is an Indo-European language that underwent partial satemization. It exists in a state of diglossia. Official communication occurs in Sauleis Bazdā (Solar Speech), the classical literary form. The spoken language is Mazdō-yō Heardō̃ (Heart Speech) when contrasted with Solar Speech, but is commonly called simply Liɣu (Ligurian). Between them lies Vulgar Ligurian, the late spoken register of Solar Speech that gave rise to Heart Speech, paralleling the relationship between Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin, and the Romance languages. Three stages: Solar Speech (Sauleis Bazdā) → Vulgar Ligurian → Heart Speech (Mazdō-yō Heardō̃, commonly Liɣu).
Ligos is an extremely conservative language dedicated to linguistic purity. The Ligurians are the most culturally conservative Indo-European nation in the world. When the Ligurians overthrew the Greeks and founded a native kingdom in the early 11th century, they removed all medieval religions from the state and revived Orphic Neoplatonism from Byzantine sources and surviving folk traditions. Official statements interpret this extreme conservatism as an attempt to revive ancient pluralism against medieval dogmatism. Adherents of other religions don’t quite see it that way.
Notes on the Solar Speech
I · Phonology
Consonants: p t k · b d g · s z · m n · r l · w y
Vowels: a e i o u · ā ē ī ō ū
Diphthongs: ai ei oi au eu ou
Onsets: C · stop+liquid · s+stop · s+stop+liquid · z+stop · sw · sn · stop+s
Codas: -s -n -r -l -m -k · open vowel
Forbidden: aspirated stops · initial geminates · clusters of 4+ consonants · triple vowel hiatus
The voiced sibilant z marks the Indo-European layer (from *ǵ, *ǵʰ, and intervocalic *s). Its absence can indicate the pre-IE substrate, which uses prenasalized stops (mb, nd, ng), geminates (ss, ll, nn, tt), and Mediterranean suffixes (-inthos, -anthos, -assos).
II · Sound Changes (PIE → Solar Speech)
| Stage | Rule | Example |
|---|---|---|
| 0a | Laryngeal coloring: *h₂e→a, *h₃e→o, *h₁e→e; *eh₂→ā, *eh₃→ō, *eh₁→ē; *oh₂→ā, *oh₃→ō | *dʰeh₁s→dēs |
| 0b | Laryngeal lengthening: *ih₁→ī, *ih₂→ī, *ih₃→ī; *uh₁→ū, *uh₂→ū, *uh₃→ū | *puHri→pūri |
| 0c | Word-initial laryngeal before consonant: *h₂C→aC, *h₃C→oC | *h₂stér→aster |
| 0d | Interconsonantal *h₂→ā; remaining laryngeals lost | |
| 1 | Syllabic resonants: *m̥→am, *n̥→an, *r̥→ar, *l̥→al | *mr̥to→marto |
| 2a | Depalatalization before nasal: *ḱ→k / _m | *h₂eḱmo→akmo |
| 2b | Satemization (dominant, not absolute): *ḱ→s, *ǵ→z, *ǵʰ→z | *ǵʰel→zel |
| 3 | Labiovelar split: *kʷ→k; *gʷ→b / _ī, *gʷ→g elsewhere; *gʷʰ→b / _ī, *gʷʰ→g elsewhere | *gʷih₃w→bīw |
| 4 | Deaspiration: *bʰ→b, *dʰ→d, *gʰ→g; *rbʰ→rp | *h₃orbʰ→orp |
| 5a | Vocalism: *o→a / _CC (non-initial) | *nokʷt→nakt |
| 5b | Long-vowel shortening: *ā→a / _w (before diphthong formation) | *sāwel→sauel |
| 5c | Diphthong normalization: *ey→ei, *oy→oi, *ow→ou, *aw→au | |
| 6 | Cluster changes: *sr→str, *wr→br, *dt→st, *tt→st, *ln→ll, *dw→d, *dy→z, *ty→s | *srew→strew |
| 7 | s-voicing: *s→z / V_V (productive in verb paradigms; frozen in nouns) | *wes-eti→wezeti |
| 8 | Semivowel hardening: *w→b / V[s,z]_ | |
| 9 | Late syncope: *uel→ul | *sauel→saul |
Satemization is the dominant reflex but not absolute. A number of words, especially numerals, ritual vocabulary, and body-part terms, preserve the original velar stops (*ḱ→k, *ǵ→g, *ǵʰ→g). These centum survivals are characteristic of the Balkan IE area and parallel the mixed reflexes attested in historical Thracian onomastics. Examples: genton “flesh” (centum *ǵ→g) beside satem zen- “beget”; dekam “ten” and kamtón “hundred” (centum *ḱ→k) beside satem s in serdā “heart.” The depalatalization before nasals (2a) may reflect an early centum tendency in certain phonological environments.
Laryngeal note: *oh₂ merges with *eh₂ → ā (a-coloring dominates), while *oh₃ → ō as expected. This asymmetry reflects the strong a-coloring power of *h₂ in the Balkan IE environment, paralleling similar developments in Thracian and Phrygian.
III · Nouns
Seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, vocative.
o-stems (masculine -os / neuter -on)
| Case | M.sg | M.pl | N.sg | N.pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom | -os | -oi | -on | -ā |
| Gen | -ō | -ōn | -ō | -ōn |
| Dat | -ōi | -omos | -ōi | -omos |
| Acc | -on | -ons | -on | -ā |
| Inst | -ō | -ois | -ō | -ois |
| Loc | -oi | -oisu | -oi | -oisu |
| Voc | -e | -oi | -on | -ā |
dēsos “god” · aydos “blaze” · dómos “house” · zewtron “vessel” · aiwon “eternity”
ā-stems (feminine)
| Case | Sg | Pl |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -ā | -ās |
| Gen | -ās | -ān |
| Dat | -āi | -āmos |
| Acc | -ān | -āns |
| Inst | -ā | -āis |
| Loc | -āi | -āsu |
| Voc | -ā | -ās |
zelā “wine” · Naktā “Night” · dázā “earth” · dīwā “heaven” · serdā “heart” · psūkā “soul” · orpā “darkness” · sanā “song” · menā “thought” · bendā “chain” · asā “ash” · zbelā “lightning” · aydolā “torch” · weidā “image” · yewā “rite” · lētā “forgetting” · atimenā “anamnesis” · moisā “ecstasy” · zāwā “joy” · zerā “glow” · sālā “beauty” · armonā “harmony” · dersā “gaze” · wērā “truth” · apā “water” · ligā “tongue, speech”
i-stems
| Case | Sg | Pl |
|---|---|---|
| Nom | -is | -eies |
| Gen | -eis | -iyōn |
| Dat | -ei | -imos |
| Acc | -in | -ins |
| Loc | -ēi | -isu |
| Voc | -i | -eies |
pūris “child” · pewtis “purification” · Sáulis “the Sun”
Consonant stems
n-stems (agents: -ōn): nom -ōn · gen -onos · dat -onei · acc -ona · voc -on. E.g. zelozewōn “wine-pourer.”
r-stems (neuter, irregular): pāwar / pāwnós / pāwarōi (fire) · esār / esnó / esārōi (blood)
Agent nouns in -tā: follow the ā-stem paradigm. E.g. pewtā “purifier” · werztā “worker” · znōtā “knower.”
IV · Adjectives
Thematic: -os (m) / -ā (f) / -on (n). Agree with head noun in gender, number, case.
| Solar (M / F / N) | Heart (M / F) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| zeltós / zeltā / zeltón | zealtu / zealtō | golden |
| zebrós / zebrā / zebrón | zevru / zevrō | sacred |
| germós / germā / germón | gearmu / gearmō | warm |
| sersós / sersā / sersón | hearzu / hearzō | black |
| rudós / rudā / rudón | ruðu / ruðō | red |
| darsós / darsā / darsón | naorzu / naorzō | bold |
| pewtós / pewtā / pewtón | bevdu / bevdō | purified |
| senós / senā / senón | heanu / heanō | ancient |
| martós / martā / martón | maortu / maortō | mortal |
| anmartós / anmartā / anmartón | ãmaortu / ãmaortō | immortal |
| wisós / wisā / wisón | vizu / vizō | all, every |
| prāmós / prāmā / prāmón | brōmu / brōmō | first |
| semós / semā / semón | heamu / heamō | equal, the same |
| oinos / oinā / oinon | oinu / oinō | one, alone |
| seltós / seltā / seltón | healtu / healtō | concealed |
| ne-bazdetós / -ā / -ón | nebazdeaðu / nebazdeaðō | ineffable |
| ne-weidetós / -ā / -ón | neveiðeaðu / neveiðeaðō | un-seeable |
| ne-zebrós / -ā / -ón | nezevru / nezevrō | unholy |
Negation prefixes: an- before adjectives (anmartos “immortal”). ne- before participles and verbal adjectives (ne-bazdetós “ineffable”).
Participles: present active -onts (m) / -ontī (f) / -on (n). Past passive -tos / -tā / -ton. E.g. zelonts “gleaming” · samonts “toiling” · znōnts “knowing.”
Comparison: Comparative -teros/-terā/-teron; superlative -tatós/-tatā/-tatón. E.g. zeltós “golden” → zeltóteros “more golden” → zeltótatós “most golden.” Heart Speech: zealtoðearu (comp.), zealtoðaoðu (sup.). Irregular: prāmós “first” (already superlative in sense).
Numerals
| # | Solar | Heart | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | oinos | oinu | |
| 2 | dwō | dvū | archaic dw- resists Phase II; w→v (Phase IV) |
| 3 | treies | dreiez | |
| 4 | ketwores | geðvorez | centum *kʷ→k |
| 5 | penke | bẽk | |
| 6 | swes | zvez | |
| 7 | septam | heptã | |
| 8 | oktou | oktou | centum; diphthong preserved |
| 9 | newan | neavã | |
| 10 | dekam | neaɣã | centum *ḱ→k |
| 100 | kamtón | gãtõ | centum *ḱ→k |
| 1000 | tūzontī | dūzõtī |
Numerals resist satemization (see centum survivals) but undergo Heart Speech sound changes normally. Irregular: dwō “two” → dvū (archaic dw- resists Phase II initial stop shift; regular derivation would give *nvū). Compounds: dekam-oinos “eleven”; dwō-dekam “twenty.” Ordinals use -tos: dektós “tenth” (centum), prāmós “first.”
V · Pronouns
Personal
| 1sg | 2sg | 1pl | 2pl | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom | az | tū | mes | yūs |
| Gen | mene | tewe | ansōn | yūsōn |
| Dat | menei | tebei | anmos | yūmos |
| Acc | me | te | ans | yūs |
Heart Speech equivalents: Solar nom/acc → Heart direct/oblique. 1sg az/me → aoz/mī. 2sg tū/te → dū/dī. 1pl mes/ans → meaz/mũ. 2pl yūs → yūz/yũ. The genitive and dative cases merge into the oblique.
Demonstrative: sas / sā / san (this)
| Case | M.sg | F.sg | N.sg | M.pl | F.pl | N.pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nom | sas | sā | san | soi | sās | sā |
| Gen | sō | sās | sō | sōn | sān | sōn |
| Dat | sōi | sāi | sōi | somos | sāmos | somos |
| Acc | san | sān | san | sons | sāns | sā |
onas / onā / onan (that) follows the same pattern on the stem on-.
Heart Speech equivalents: Solar sas/sā → Heart hao (m) / hō (f) “this.” Solar onas/onā → Heart ũnao (m) / ūnō (f) “that.” The full paradigm collapses to a direct/oblique distinction.
Relative: yos / yā / yon (who, which)
The relative takes the case its own clause requires, not the case of its antecedent.
Interrogative: kas (who?) · kasān (what?)
VI · Verbs
Thematic present
| Sg | Pl | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | -ō | -ome |
| 2 | -esi | -ete |
| 3 | -eti | -onti |
Athematic present
| Sg | Pl | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | -mi | -me |
| 2 | -si | -te |
| 3 | -ti | -nti |
Athematic stems: es- (be), stā- (stand), dō- (give), lē- (release), plē- (fill), pō- (drink), slū- (hear), bā- (speak).
Past copula: ése (3sg only).
Imperative
| 2sg | 3sg (jussive) | 2pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Thematic | -e | -etu | -ete |
| Athematic | -i | -etu | -te |
Prohibition: mē + jussive (-etu).
Sigmatic aorist
| Sg | Pl | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | -ésam | -ésame |
| 2 | -ésas | -ésate |
| 3 | -ése | -ésan |
Vowel-final stems contract: stā- → stāse, dō- → dōse, bā- → bāse, slū- → slūse. Exception: lē- → lētése (stem extension).
Infinitive
-tei (dáletei “to protect,” zéwetei “to pour”).
Principal Parts
| Imp. 2sg | Pres. 3sg | Aor. 3sg | Meaning | Heart stem |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| slūi | slūti | slūse | hear | hlūð- |
| ayde | aydeti | aydése | kindle | ayð- |
| zewe | zeweti | zewése | pour | zeav- |
| dale | daleti | dalése | protect | naol- |
| lēi | lēti | lētése | release | līð- |
| steige | steigeti | steigése | walk | teiɣ- |
| pewe | peweti | pewése | purify | beav- |
| pōi | pōti | pōse | drink | būð- |
| werte | werteti | wertése | turn | veart- |
| ezere | ezereti | ezerése | rouse | ezear- |
| bāi | bāti | bāse | speak | mōð- |
| pleke | pleketi | plekése | weave | bleaɣ- |
| stele | steleti | stelése | set, balance | teal- |
| tāze | tāzeti | tāzése | be silent | dōz- |
| derse | derseti | dersése | gaze | nearze- |
| geme | gemeti | gemése | come | geam- |
| sperze | sperzeti | sperzése | scatter | pearz- |
| klāwe | klāweti | klāwése | close | glōv- |
| were | wereti | werése | open | vear- |
| ede | edeti | edése | eat | eð- |
| epe | epeti | epése | offer | ev- |
| seke | seketi | sekése | follow | heaɣ- |
| plewe | pleweti | plewése | flow | bleav- |
| gene | geneti | genése | become | gean- |
| bere | bereti | berése | carry | mear- |
| treme | tremeti | tremése | tremble | dream- |
| weide | weideti | weidése | see | veið- |
| sele | seleti | selése | conceal | heal- |
| weze | wezeti | wezése | wear | veaz- |
| gebe | gebeti | gebése | seize | geav- |
| mare | mareti | marése | die | maor- |
| sāge | sāgeti | sāgése | seek | hōɣ- |
| reze | rezeti | rezése | direct, plan | reaz- |
| sane | saneti | sanése | sing | haon- |
| bende | bendeti | bendése | bind | mẽd- |
| mene | meneti | menése | remember | mean- |
| sente | senteti | sentése | send | hẽtea- |
| stāi | stāti | stāse | stand | tōð- |
| dōi | dōti | dōse | give | nūð- |
| plēi | plēti | plēse | fill | blīð- |
| esi | esti | ése | be | ez- |
| kele | keleti | kelése | strike | geal- |
| dere | dereti | derése | tear | near- |
VII · Particles
| Solar | Heart | Meaning | Solar | Heart | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ta | da | and | ne | ne | not |
| mē | mī | prohibitive | en | ẽ | in |
| ek | eɣ | from | anā | anō | upon |
| per | ber | through | anti | ãtī | in exchange |
| iti | iðī | thus | ōn | ū̃ | therefore |
| swai | zvai | as | yana | yãō | when |
| tote | duoð | then | ēpite | īvið | but |
| māi | mū | truly | oisā | oizō | merely |
| aiwōi | aivū | always | ati | aðī | again |
| nūn | nū̃ | now | prāmón | brōmõ | first |
| nedō | neðū | down | anō | anō | up |
| sewé | heav | hither | tenā | deanō | thither |
| eidō | eiðū | behold! | ō | ō | O! |
| euoi | evū | ecstatic cry | — | ðī | complementizer |
| — | ðō | yes/no question |
VIII · Syntax & Word Formation
Word order: verb-initial by default in all clause types.
Prepositions: en + dat./loc. (in) · ek + gen. (from) · per + acc. (through) · anā + acc. (upon) · anti + acc. (in exchange for).
Negation: ne + indicative verb. mē + jussive for prohibition.
Relative clauses: yos/yā/yon introduces; takes own clause’s case.
Neuter plural subjects take singular verbs.
Compounds: determinant (stripped of thematic ending) + -o- + head. zelā + zew- + -ōn → zelozewōn. werzā + stelā → werzostelā.
Suffixes: -ā (fem. abstract) · -os/-on (thematic) · -is (i-stem) · -tā (agent) · -ōn (agent n-stem) · -tron (instrument) · -tis (action) · -tos (past part.) · -onts (pres. part.)
IX · Sample Sentences
Per pāwar ta zelān, per zbelān ta Naktān, geneti martos anmartos.
Through fire and wine, through lightning and Night, the mortal becomes immortal.
Esmi az dázās ta Naktās zeltās pūris.
I am a child of Earth and golden Night.
Genése en pāwarōi wisā oinon.
In fire all things became one.
Sā ligā esti pāwar dīwās, zelās zebrā yewā.
This tongue is the fire of heaven, wine’s sacred rite.
Zelāi Umnos (Hymn to Wine)
Ek brugō rudō zelān wisān pōi,
From the red fruit, drink all the wine,
sā esti esār Sabáziō, genton dēsōn,
this is the blood of Sabazios, flesh of the gods,
yos en Naktāi sersāi dēsos genése ta derése.
who in black Night was born as a god and was torn apart.
Zelā anā ōs martōn zewtā,
Wine, poured upon the mouth of mortals,
anmarton pōtón en martāi serdāi aydeti,
kindles an immortal drink in the mortal heart,
ta psūkān ek dázās anā asteróns lēti.
and releases the soul from earth up to the stars.
Vulgar Ligurian
Phase I: Stress → penultimate. The sole phonological innovation of the spoken register. Creates conditions for Heart Speech vowel breaking.
| Feature | Solar Speech | Vulgar Ligurian |
|---|---|---|
| Stress | mobile (lexical) | fixed penultimate |
| Cases | 7 | 5 (instrumental merges with locative) |
| Genders | 3 | 2 (neuter → masculine) |
| Verb system | thematic / athematic | athematics regularizing to thematic |
| Word order | VSO | SOV emerging as prose default |
| Relative *yos | clause-introducer | postpositive linker (→ ezafe) |
The relative pronoun yos/yā/yon begins postpositive use as a linker: pāwar-yos dīwās “fire which-is of-heaven” → “the fire of heaven.” This is the precursor of the Heart Speech ezafe, paralleling Old Persian hya-/tya- → modern Persian ezafe -e.
Notes on the Heart Speech
A descendant of the Solar Speech (Sauleis Bazdā). Predominantly voiced, with voiceless stops and /s/ preserved from cluster reductions.
1 · Sound Changes (Vulgar Ligurian → Heart Speech)
| Phase | Rule | Example |
|---|---|---|
| I | Stress → penultimate | zelā: stress shifts to ze- |
| II | #sC[stop]→C (voiceless preserved); #ps→s; #s→h/_{V,liquid}; #s→z/_{other C}; #p→b; #t→d; #k→g; #b→m; #d→n | stelā→tealō; serdā→heardō; bazdā→mazdō; psūkā→hūɣō |
| III | Drag chain: ā→ō; ō→ū; ē→ī | mazdā→mazdō; dēsos→nīzu |
| IV | w→v; u→v / _V | bōwar→bōvar; euoi→evū |
| V | Stops→voiced fricatives / V(glide)__ [not after liquid; not before obstruent] | geneti→geaneðī; zebrós→zevru |
| Va | Nasal+voiceless stop → nasalize vowel + preserve stop; stop+sibilant → sibilant; voiced obs.+voiceless → voiced | senti→hẽtī; tekstā→destō; pewtā→bevdō |
| Vb | s→z / _[+voiced C] | esmi→ezmī |
| VI | Stressed short a→ao, e→ea, o→uo / open syllable or liquid+C [not word-initial; not after v/ɣ] | zelā→zealō; serdā→heardō |
| VII | V→Ṽ / _coda nasal; coda m,n→∅ | bendā→mẽdō; -on→-õ |
| VIII | -eus→-eau; -os→-u; -us→-u; -is→-i; -oi/-ōi/-ūi→-ū; -ei/-īi→-ī; final -e→∅; -i→-ī / {t,d,ð,z,n,m}_# | Zagréus→Zaɣreau; dēsos→nīzu |
| IX | Final -s→-z | |
| X | Initial zb→zv; initial ztr→zdr; hiatus oo→ō, uu→ū, etc. | zbelā→zvealō |
| XI | s→z except before voiceless stops (st/sp/sk preserved); geminate zz→z, vv→v, ðð→ð |
Breaking details (VI): Breaking is blocked after voiced fricatives (v, ɣ) to avoid awkward clusters. In trisyllabic words, breaking targets the first non-initial nucleus first; if blocked, it falls back to the penultimate. In words of four or more syllables, the penultimate is tried first, with fallback to the antepenultimate. The nucleus detector treats sequences of i + non-high vowel (a, e, o, ā, ō, ē) as separate nuclei.
Final -i lengthening (VIII): Word-final -i lengthens to -ī after dental, nasal, and fricative consonants (t, d, ð, z, n, m), preserving the distinction between noun -i (i-stem DIR) and verb -ī (2sg, infinitive).
Late cluster repair (X): Initial ztr- voices to zdr- alongside zb- → zv-, maintaining the Heart Speech preference for voiced onsets.
Consonants: b d g · p t k · v ð ɣ · z s (only in st/sp/sk) · h (initial) · m n · r l · y
Voiceless stops occur: word-initially (from #sC reduction), after liquids, after nasal vowels, and in voiceless clusters (st, sk, kt, pt). /s/ only before voiceless stops. /h/ word-initially (from #s-).
Vowels: a e i o u · ā ō ī ū · ã ẽ ĩ õ ũ ō̃ ī̃ ū̃ (nasal). Diphthongs: ao ea uo (from breaking); ai au oi ou ev (inherited).
Stress: penultimate, invariable. Stressed short a/e/o break to ao/ea/uo in open syllables and before liquid+C (not word-initially).
3 · Nouns
Two genders (masculine, feminine). Former neuters → masculine. Five cases:
| Case | Function |
|---|---|
| Direct | Subject (prs.), patient (pst.), citation |
| Oblique | Object (prs.), agent (pst.), possessor, postposition complement |
| Construct | Head noun + Ezafe linking to modifier |
| Locative | Location, goal, temporal setting |
| Vocative | Direct address (archaic parent-language endings) |
Masculine (o-stems): nīzu “god”
| Sg. | Pl. | |
|---|---|---|
| DIR | nīz-u | nīz-ū |
| OBL | nīz-õ | nīz-õz |
| EZ | nīzu-yo | nīzū-yũ |
| LOC | nīz-ū | nīz-ūz |
| VOC | nīz-e | nīz-oi |
Feminine (ā-stems): zealō “wine”
| Sg. | Pl. | |
|---|---|---|
| DIR | zeal-ō | zeal-ōz |
| OBL | zeal-ō̃ | zeal-ō̃z |
| EZ | zealō-yō | zealōz-yũ |
| LOC | zeal-ū | zeal-ūz |
| VOC | zeal-ā | zeal-āz |
i-stems (būri “child”): DIR -i, OBL -ĩ, LOC -ī.
r-stems (bōvar “fire”): DIR bōvar, OBL bōvarnõ, LOC bōvarū, VOC bōvar.
Former neuters in -õ (ostõ “bone,” aivõ “eternity”): DIR/OBL syncretic (-õ).
4 · Pronouns
| Direct | Oblique | |
|---|---|---|
| 1sg | aoz | mī |
| 2sg | dū | dī |
| 3sg | hao | hõ (m) / hō̃ (f) |
| 1pl | meaz | mũ |
| 2pl | yūz | yũ |
| 3pl | haoi | hũ |
Demonstratives: hō (f) / hao (m) “this”; ūnō / ũnao “that.”
Interrogatives: gao “who?”, gaozõ “what?”
Note: Heart Speech mī is both the 1sg oblique pronoun (from Solar me) and the prohibitive particle (from Solar mē, via Phase III ē→ī). The prohibitive always precedes a jussive verb form. 1sg DIR aoz is irregular (breaking in monosyllable; cf. Solar az).
5 · Adjectives
Agree in gender: masculine –u, feminine –ō. Linked to head by Ezafe (§6). Past passive participle in –ðu (f. –ðō) functions as adjective.
| M / F | Meaning | Source |
|---|---|---|
| nuvu / nuvō | deep | dubos |
| zvōðu / zvōðō | sweet | swādos |
Hymnic register: Sacred epithets take feminine -ō regardless of head gender: Zealtō Bōvaryo Ãmaortō “To the Golden Undying Fire.”
6 · The Ezafe (Construct State)
Suffixed linker on the HEAD noun, agreeing with the head’s gender: -yo (m), -yō (f), -yũ (pl). Links to adjectives and possessors. Possessors take oblique. Origin: Solar relative pronoun *yos/yā/yon → Vulgar postpositive linker → Heart Speech agreement suffix (cf. Old Persian hya- → Persian -e).
bōvar-yo nīvō̃
fire-EZ.M heaven.OBL = “fire of heaven”
yeavō-yō zevrō-yō zealō̃
rite-EZ.F sacred-EZ.F wine.OBL = “wine’s sacred rite”
7 · Verbs
Two stems: present (imperfective) and past (present stem + -ī-, perfective). One agreement paradigm for both:
| Sg. | Pl. | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | –ã | –ãr |
| 2 | –ī | –ĩ |
| 3 | –eð | –ũð |
Copula: 1sg ezmī, 2sg ezī, 3sg estī, 3pl hẽtī. Past: īz.
Imperative: Thematic –ea (2sg), athematic –ī (2sg). Prohibition: mī + jussive.
Participles: Present active –ũð (zealũð “gleaming”); past passive –ðu (geanðu “born,” nearðu “torn”).
Infinitive: –ðī (zeaveðī “to pour”).
Negation: ne + indicative.
Geminate simplification (XI): Phase XI voicing of s→z may create geminate zz (from original ss), which simplifies to z. E.g. copula 2sg Solar essi → ezī. Phase VIII final -i lengthening applies after dental, nasal, and fricative consonants (t, d, ð, z, n, m).
Verb Stems
| Present | Past | Meaning | ← Solar |
|---|---|---|---|
| ayð- | ayðī- | kindle | ayd- |
| blīð- | blīðī- | fill | plē- |
| dream- | dreamī- | tremble | trem- |
| ez- | ezī- / īz | be (copula) | es- |
| geam- | geamī- | come | gem- |
| gean- | geanī- | become | gen- |
| haon- | haonī- | sing | san- |
| hẽt- | hẽtī- | be (3pl copula) | es- (3pl senti) |
| hẽtea- | hẽteaī- | send | sent- |
| hlūð- | hlūðī- | hear | slū- |
| mear- | mearī- | carry | ber- |
| mōð- | mōðī- | speak | bā- |
| naol- | naolī- | protect | dal- |
| nearze- | nearzeī- | gaze | ders- |
| nūð- | nūðī- | give | dō- |
| reaz- | reazī- | direct, plan | rez- |
| tōð- | tōðī- | stand | stā- |
| veart- | veartī- | turn | wert- |
| veaz- | veazī- | wear | wes- |
| vear- | vearī- | open | wer- |
| veið- | veiðī- | see | weid- |
| zeav- | zeavī- | pour | zew- |
| beav- | beavī- | purify | pew- |
| bleaɣ- | bleaɣī- | weave | plek- |
| bleav- | bleavī- | flow | plew- |
| būð- | būðī- | drink | pō- |
| dōz- | dōzī- | be silent | tās- |
| eð- | eðī- | eat | ed- |
| ev- | evī- | offer | ep- |
| ezear- | ezearī- | rouse | ezer- |
| geal- | gealī- | strike | kel- |
| geav- | geavī- | seize | geb- |
| glōv- | glōvī- | close | klāw- |
| heaɣ- | heaɣī- | follow | sek- |
| heal- | healī- | conceal | sel- |
| hōɣ- | hōɣī- | seek | sāg- |
| līð- | līðī- | release | lē- |
| maor- | maorī- | die | mar- |
| mean- | meanī- | remember | men- |
| mẽd- | mẽdī- | bind | bend- |
| near- | nearī- | tear | der- |
| pearz- | pearzī- | scatter | sperz- |
| teiɣ- | teiɣī- | walk | steig- |
8 · Split Ergativity
Tense-based split: the verb always agrees with whichever argument is in Direct case.
| Agent | Patient | Verb agrees with | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present transitive | DIR | OBL | Agent |
| Past transitive | OBL | DIR | Patient |
| Intransitive (both) | S = DIR | S | |
Aoz zealō̃ zeavã.
“I pour wine.” (present: aoz DIR, zealō̃ OBL, verb 1sg)
Mī zealō zeavīeð.
“Wine was poured by me.” (past: mī OBL, zealō DIR, verb 3sg agrees with wine)
Līðō̃ aoz ne meanīã.
“Forgetting did not hold me.” (past: līðō̃ OBL agent, aoz DIR patient, verb 1sg)
9 · Syntax & Particles
Word order: SOV (prose); V-initial or free (hymnic).
Postpositions: ẽ “in” (+LOC), eɣ “from” (+OBL), ber “through” (+OBL).
Coordination: da “and”; asyndeton in hymnic register.
Relative clauses: complementizer ðī.
Questions: fronted interrogative; particle ðō for yes/no.
Conditional: yãō “if/when” + present (realis) or past (irrealis).
Copula drop: permitted in equative sentences (hymnic register).
| Form | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| da | and | coordinator |
| ne | not | +indicative |
| mī | don’t | prohibitive +jussive |
| ẽ | in, within | +LOC |
| eɣ | from | +OBL |
| ber | through | +OBL |
| anō | upon | +OBL |
| ðī | that | complementizer |
| ðō | (question) | yes/no particle |
| yãō | when, if | conditional |
| iðī | thus | |
| nū̃ | now | |
| eiðū | behold! | |
| evū | (ecstatic cry) | |
| ō | O! | vocative interjection |
Irregular particles: yãō “when/if” (← Solar yana): nasalization and contraction (regular: *yaona). neðū “down” (← nedō): prefix ne- blocks Phase VI breaking (regular: *neaðū). anō “up” (← anō): frozen before Phase III ō→ū (regular: *anū). dvū “two” (← dwō): archaic dw- resists Phase II (regular: *nvū).
10 · Sample Sentences
Hao nīzu-yo nuomõ bōvarū ẽ estī.
“The god’s house is in the fire.” (nīzu-yo nuomõ = god-EZ.M house.OBL)
Dū gao ezmī ðō?
“Who are you?” (fronted interrogative + yes/no particle)
Yãō bōvar ayðeð, heardō geanīeð.
“When fire kindles, the heart is born.” (conditional + past intransitive)
11 · Register
| Feature | Prose | Hymnic |
|---|---|---|
| Word order | SOV | V-initial / free |
| Adjective gender | Agrees with head | Feminine -ō for sacred epithets |
| Vocative | DIR + ō | Archaic parent-language endings |
| Coordination | da “and” | Asyndeton |
| Copula | Required | May be dropped |
| Ezafe | Required | May be dropped in epithets and invocations |
12 · Hymn to the Golden Undying Fire
I · Proem
Ō bōvar! Ō bōvar heanu da zevru!
O fire! O ancient, sacred fire!
Ō brōmu ayðu, orpō̃ eɣ zealũð!
O first blaze, gleaming from darkness!
Naktō̃ eɣ geanðu, nīvō̃ eɣ ayðu
Born from Night, kindled from heaven
heardō̃ veartō̃ da aivõ reazu!
lord of the heart’s wheel and eternity!
II · Theogony
Bōvarū ẽ vizō oinu geanīeð.
In fire, all things became one.
Hao bōvar-yo nīvō̃ īz; hao oinu, hao brōmu.
He was the fire of heaven; he, the one, the first.
Hũ nīzõz-yũ Naktō̃ hao nearīeð.
The gods of Night tore him.
Hũ ostõ-yo hõ azō̃ ber pearzīeð.
They scattered his bones through ash.
Hũ ezōr-yo hõ naozō̃ ber zeavīeð.
They poured his blood through earth.
III · Anthropogony
Hũ naozō̃ da zvealō̃ eɣ ayðīeð bōvar.
From earth and lightning, fire was kindled.
Hũ azō̃ da ostõ eɣ geanīeð heardō.
From ash and bone, the heart was born.
Maortō heardō ãmaortō̃ bōvar ẽ.
A mortal heart with immortal fire within.
IV · Declaration
Aoz būri-yo naozō̃ da Naktō-yō zealtō̃ ezmī.
I am a child of Earth and golden Night.
Aoz maortu ezmī ezōr-yo mī nīvō̃ eɣ estī.
I am mortal but my blood is from heaven.
Aoz bōvar-yo heardō̃ znūðu ezmī.
I am a knower of the heart’s fire.
Aoz avō-yō aðimeanō̃ eɣ būðīã.
I drink from the water of memory.
Līðō̃ aoz ne meanīã.
Forgetting did not hold me.
V · Prayer
Bōvar ber da zealō̃ ber,
zvealō̃ ber da Naktō̃ ber,
maortu ãmaortu geaneð!
Through fire and wine, through lightning and Night, the mortal becomes immortal!
Hūɣō-yō mũ ber zealō̃ zeavea!
Pour wine through our souls!
Mẽdō̃z-yũ mũ nearea!
Tear our chains!
Mũ veartō̃ eɣ lī!
Release us from the wheel!
Vocabulary
Nouns
| Solar | Heart | Meaning | Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| aiwon | aivõ | eternity | M‹N› |
| algos | algu | pain, grief | M |
| apā | avō | water | F |
| armonā | armuonō | harmony | F |
| asā | azō | ash | F |
| atimenā | aðimeanō | anamnesis | F |
| ausā | auzō | dawn | F |
| awēā | avīō | wind, breath | F |
| aydolā | ayðuolō | torch | F |
| aydos | ayðu | blaze | M |
| bazdā | mazdō | word, speech | F |
| bendā | mẽdō | chain | F |
| berzā | mearzō | mountain, height | F |
| bewdā | mevdō | awakening | F |
| brugos | mruɣu | fruit | M |
| bīwā | mīvō | life | F |
| danzwā | nãzvō | tongue | F |
| dekam | neaɣã | ten (centum *ḱ→k) | — |
| dersā | nearzō | gaze | F |
| dorā | nuorō | gate | F |
| dázā | naozō | earth | F |
| dómos | nuomu | house | M |
| dēsos | nīzu | god | M |
| dīwā | nīvō | heaven | F |
| esbos | ezbu | horse | M |
| esār | ezōr | blood | M‹N› |
| gebā | geavō | seizure | F |
| genton | gẽtõ | flesh, body (centum *ǵ→g) | M‹N› |
| genuā | gẽvō | knee (centum *ǵ→g) | F |
| hūlā | hūlō | matter | F |
| kamtón | gãtõ | hundred (centum *ḱ→k) | M‹N› |
| kósmā | gozmō | cosmos | F |
| lewdā | levdō | the people, freedom | F |
| lezā | leazō | law | F |
| ligā | liɣō | tongue, speech | F |
| lētā | līðō | release, forgetting | F |
| menā | meanō | thought | F |
| moisā | moizō | ecstasy | F |
| mēlon | mīlõ | limb, joint | M‹N› |
| mētron | mīðrõ | measure | M‹N› |
| Naktā | Naktō | Night | F |
| nóos | nou | mind | M |
| orpā | orpō | darkness | F |
| ostón | ostõ | bone | M‹N› |
| pewtis | bevdī | purification | F.i |
| psūkā | hūɣō | soul | F |
| pāwar | bōvar | fire | M‹N› |
| pōtón | būðõ | drink, potion | M‹N› |
| pūris | būri | child | i |
| ramā | raomō | calm, peace | F |
| rezon | reazõ | principle | M‹N› |
| rezós | reazu | ruler, lord | M |
| rezā | reazō | governance | F |
| sanā | haonō | song | F |
| sarsā | haorzō | head, summit | F |
| selā | healō | concealment, veil | F |
| serdā | heardō | heart | F |
| sewā | heavō | void | F |
| smeā | zmeō | smile, laughter | F |
| snēā | znīō | thread, web | F |
| stelā | tealō | balance | F |
| strewā | treavō | stream | F |
| sunos | hunu | dog, hound | M |
| swepós | zveavu | sleep | M |
| Sáulis | Hauli | the Sun | i |
| sālā | hōlō | beauty | F |
| teksā | deazō | craft, art | F |
| tāsā | dōzō | sacred silence | F |
| umnos | ũnu | hymn (Greek ὕμνος) | M |
| weidā | veiðō | image, vision | F |
| wertā | veartō | revolution, wheel | F |
| werzā | vearzō | work, labor | F |
| westis | vestī | garment | i |
| wērā | vīrō | truth | F |
| wōkā | vūɣō | voice, utterance | F |
| yewā | yeavō | rite, sacred law | F |
| yugon | yuɣõ | yoke | M‹N› |
| zbelā | zvealō | lightning | F |
| zelā | zealō | wine, gleam | F |
| zerā | zearō | glow | F |
| zewtron | zevdrõ | vessel | M‹N› |
| zāwā | zōvō | joy | F |
| ōson | ūzõ | mouth | M‹N› |
Agent Nouns
| Solar | Heart | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| pewtā | bevdō | purifier |
| werztā | vearzdō | worker |
| znōtā | znūðō | knower |
| tekstā | destō | craftsman |
| zelozewōn | zelozeavū̃ | wine-pourer, hierophant |
| naktosanōn | naktohaonū̃ | night-singer |
Compounds
Heart Speech compounds are formed from already-derived Heart stems (post-change compounding). Each element undergoes the full sound change pipeline independently; the first element is stripped of its case ending and joined to the head by the linking vowel -o-.
| Solar | Heart | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| noopāwar | nūbōvar | mind-fire |
| zelopāwar | zealobōvar | wine-fire |
| pāwaroserdā | bōvaroheardō | fire-heart |
| werzostelā | vearzotealō | labor-balance |
| werzomētron | vearzomīðrõ | labor-measure |
| lewdorezā | levdoreazō | democratic planning |
| lewdobazdā | levdomazdō | the people’s word |
| saulorezā | hauloreazō | solar governance |
| wēroselā | vīrohealō | truth-shield |
| serdoaydā | heardoayðō | heart-kindling |
| snēokósmā | znīogozmō | world-thread |
| wisodamā | vizonaomō | all-taming |
| wisodaltā | vizonaoltō | all-protector |
| orpodertā | orponeardō | darkness-tearer |
| bendodertā | mẽdoneardō | chain-breaker |
| asterozelonts | asterozealũð | star-gleaming |
| zeltozelonts | zealtozealũð | gold-gleaming |
| zāwodōtā | zōvonūðō | joy-giver |
| psūkolētā | hūɣolīðō | soul-releaser |
| saulozenís | haulozeanī | sun-born |
| dīwozenís | nīvozeanī | heaven-born |
Theonyms
| Solar | Heart | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Sabázios | Havaoziu | ecstasy god |
| Zbelsurdos | Zvealzurdu | thunder god |
| Zagréus | Zaɣreau | the torn child |
| Pānēs | Bōnīz | the First Light |
| ne-bazdetós | nebazdeaðu | the Ineffable |
Substrate Vocabulary (Pre-Indo-European)
| Form | Meaning |
|---|---|
| nassesessā | ferment-vat |
| sittālassā | sacred grove |
| kānnullessā | grain offering |
Snapshots of the Labyrinth 
2 thoughts on “Ligurian Grammar”