Update: Second draft. Changed sample texts after confirming grammar. Fixed some typos. There are more. Updated sound changes. Attempt at a combined grammar: https://snapshotsofthelabyrinth.photo.blog/2026/04/10/ligurian-grammar/

Notes on the Solar Speech

I · Phonology

Consonants: p t k · b d g · s z · m n · r l · w y

Vowels: a e i o u · ā ē ī ō ū

Diphthongs: ai ei oi au ew ou

Onsets: C · stop+liquid · s+stop · s+stop+liquid · z+stop · sw · sn · stop+s

Codas: -s -n -r -l -m -k · open vowel

Forbidden: aspirated stops · initial geminates · clusters of 4+ consonants · triple vowel hiatus

II · Nouns

Seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, vocative.

o-stems (masculine -os / neuter -on)

Case	M.sg	M.pl	N.sg	N.pl
Nom	-os	-oi	-on	-ā
Gen	-ō	-ōn	-ō	-ōn
Dat	-ōi	-omos	-ōi	-omos
Acc	-on	-ons	-on	-ā
Inst	-ō	-ois	-ō	-ois
Loc	-oi	-oisu	-oi	-oisu
Voc	-e	-oi	-on	-ā

dēsos “god” · aydos “blaze” · dómos “house” · zewtron “vessel” · aiwon “eternity”

ā-stems (feminine)

Case	Sg	Pl
Nom	-ā	-ās
Gen	-ās	-ān
Dat	-āi	-āmos
Acc	-ān	-āns
Inst	-ā	-āis
Loc	-āi	-āsu
Voc	-ā	-ās

zelā “wine” · Naktā “Night” · dázā “earth” · dīwā “heaven” · serdā “heart” · psūkā “soul” · orpā “darkness” · sanā “song” · menā “thought” · bendā “chain” · azā “ash” · zbelā “lightning” · aydolā “torch” · weidā “image” · yewā “rite” · lētā “forgetting” · atimenā “anamnesis” · moisā “ecstasy” · zāwā “joy” · zerā “glow” · sālā “beauty” · armonā “harmony” · dersā “gaze” · wērā “truth” · apā “water” · danzwā “tongue”

i-stems

Case	Sg	Pl
Nom	-is	-eies
Gen	-eis	-iyōn
Dat	-ei	-imos
Acc	-in	-ins
Loc	-ēi	-isu
Voc	-i	-eies

pūris “child” · pewtis “purification”

Consonant stems

n-stems (agents: -ōn): nom -ōn · gen -onos · dat -onei · acc -ona · voc -on

zelozewōn “wine-pourer”

r-stems (neuter, irregular): pāwar / pāwnós / pāwarōi (fire) · esār / esnó / esarōi (blood)

Agent nouns in -tā: follow the ā-stem paradigm (nom -tā · gen -tās · dat -tāi · acc -tān).

III · Adjectives

Thematic: -os (m) / -ā (f) / -on (n). Decline like o-stems (m/n) and ā-stems (f). Agree with head noun in gender, number, case.

M / F / N	Meaning	M / F / N	Meaning
zeltós / zeltā / zeltón	golden	zebrós / zebrā / zebrón	sacred
germós / germā / germón	warm	sersós / sersā / sersón	black
rudós / rudā / rudón	red	darsós / darsā / darsón	bold
pewtós / pewtā / pewtón	purified	senós / senā / senón	ancient
martós / martā / martón	mortal	wisós / wisā / wisón	all, every
anmartós / anmartā / anmartón	immortal	prāmós / prāmā / prāmón	first
semós / semā / semón	equal, the same	oinos / oinā / oinon	one, alone
seltós / seltā / seltón	concealed	ne-bazdetós / -ā / -ón	ineffable
ne-weidetós / -ā / -ón	un-seeable	ne-zebrós / -ā / -ón	unholy

Predicate rule: with a single subject, the predicate adjective agrees in gender. Across mixed-gender subjects, the neuter singular serves as default.

Negation prefixes: an- before adjectives (anmartos “immortal”). ne- before participles and verbal adjectives (ne-bazdetos “ineffable,” ne-zebrós “unholy”).

Participles: present active -onts (m) / -ontī (f) / -on (n), the masculine form is semi-invariable across genders in hymnic register. Past passive -tos / -tā / -ton.

Form	Meaning
zelonts / zelontī	gleaming
samonts	toiling
znōnts	knowing

wisā vs. wisān: wisān (fem.acc.sg) modifies a specific feminine noun. wisā (neut.pl) stands alone as “all things.”

IV · Pronouns

Personal

	1sg	2sg	1pl	2pl
Nom	az	tū	mes	yūs
Gen	mene	tewe	ansōn	yūsōn
Dat	menei	tebei	anmos	yūmos
Acc	me	te	ans	yūs

Demonstrative: sas / sā / san (this)

Case	M.sg	F.sg	N.sg	M.pl	F.pl	N.pl
Nom	sas	sā	san	soi	sās	sā
Gen	sō	sās	sō	sōn	sān	sōn
Dat	sōi	sāi	sōi	somos	sāmos	somos
Acc	san	sān	san	sons	sāns	sā

onas / onā / onan (that) follows the same pattern on the stem on-.

Relative: yos / yā / yon (who, which)

Case	M.sg	F.sg	N.sg	M.pl	F.pl	N.pl
Nom	yos	yā	yon	yoi	yās	yā
Gen	yō	yās	yō	yōn	yān	yōn
Dat	yōi	yāi	yōi	yomos	yāmos	yomos
Acc	yon	yān	yon	yons	yāns	yā

The relative takes the case its own clause requires, not the case of its antecedent.

Interrogative: kas (who?) · kasān (what?)

V · Verbs

Thematic present

	Sg	Pl
1	-ō	-ome
2	-esi	-ete
3	-eti	-onti

e.g. zew-ō, zew-esi, zew-eti / zew-ome, zew-ete, zew-onti

Athematic present

	Sg	Pl
1	-mi	-me
2	-si	-te
3	-ti	-nti

Athematic stems: es- (be; 2sg esi, 3pl senti), stā- (stand), dō- (give), lē- (release), plē- (fill), pō- (drink), slū- (hear), bā- (speak).

Past copula: ése (3sg only).

Imperative

	2sg	3sg (jussive)	2pl
Thematic	-e	-etu	-ete
Athematic	-i	-etu	-te

Prohibition: mē + jussive (-etu).

Attested imperatives: dale · slūi · geme · ayde · zewe · steige · pewe · lēi · plēi · were · klāwe · mename · sperze · tāse · pōi · ede · epe · derse · seke · plewe · werte · ezere · bāi

Sigmatic aorist

	Sg	Pl
1	-ésam	-ésame
2	-ésas	-ésate
3	-ése	-ésan

Vowel-final stems contract: stā- → stāse, dō- → dōse, bā- → bāse, slū- → slūse. Exception: lē- → lētése (stem extension).

Infinitive

-tei (dáletei “to protect,” zéwetei “to pour”).

VI · Word Formation

Compounds: determinant (stripped of thematic ending) + -o- + head. zelā + zew- + -ōn → zelozewōn. werzā + stelā → werzostelā.

Suffixes: -ā (fem. abstract) · -os/-on (thematic) · -is (i-stem) · -tā (agent) · -ōn (agent n-stem) · -tron (instrument) · -tis (action) · -tos (past part.) · -onts (pres. part.)

VII · Syntax

Word order: verb-initial by default in all clause types.

Prepositions: en + dat./loc. (in) · ek + gen. (from) · per + acc. (through) · ana + acc. (upon) · anti + acc. (in exchange for).

Negation: ne + indicative verb. mē + jussive for prohibition.

Relative clauses: yos/yā/yon introduces; takes own clause’s case.

Indefinite-conditional: yos… sas (whoever… let that one).

Collective nouns: lewdā (the people) is fem.sg., takes sg. verbs; the assembly responds in 1pl.

Neuter plural subjects take singular verbs.

VIII · Sound Changes (PIE → Solar Speech)

Stage	Rule
0a	Laryngeal coloring: *h₂e→a, *h₃e→o, *h₁e→e; *eh₂→ā, *eh₃→ō, *eh₁→ē
0b	Laryngeal lengthening: *ih₁→ī, *ih₂→ī, *ih₃→ī; *uh₁→ū, *uh₂→ū
0c	Word-initial laryngeal before consonant: *h₂C→aC, *h₃C→oC (e.g. *h₂stér→aster-, *h₂weh₁→awē-)
0d	Interconsonantal *h₂→a; remaining laryngeals lost
1	Syllabic resonants: *m̥→am, *n̥→an, *r̥→ar, *l̥→al
2a	Depalatalization before nasal: *ḱ→k / _m (e.g. *h₂eḱmo→akmo-)
2b	Satemization: *ḱ→s, *ǵ→z, *ǵʰ→z
3	Labiovelar split: *kʷ→k; *gʷ→b / _ī, *gʷ→g elsewhere; *gʷʰ→b / _ī, *gʷʰ→g elsewhere
4	Deaspiration: *bʰ→b, *dʰ→d, *gʰ→g; *rbʰ→rp
5a	Vocalism: *o→a / _CC (non-initial)
5b	Long-vowel shortening: *ā→a / _w (before diphthong formation)
5c	Diphthong normalization: *ey→ei, *oy→oi, *ow→ou, *aw→au
6	Cluster changes: *sr→str, *wr→br, *dt→st, *tt→st, *ln→ll, *dw→d
7	s-voicing: *s→z / V_V
8	Semivowel hardening: *w→b / V[s,z]_
9	Late syncope: unstressed *e→∅ / u_l (e.g. *sauel-→saul-)

IX · Particles

Particle	Meaning	Particle	Meaning
ta	and	ne	not
mē	prohibitive	en	in
ek	from	ana	upon
per	through	anti	in exchange
iti	thus	ōn	therefore
swai	as	yana	when
tote	then	ēpite	but
māi	truly	oisā	merely
aiwōi	always	aiti	again
nūn	now	prāmón	first
nedō	down	anō	up
sewé	hither	tenā	thither
eidō	behold!	ō	O!
euoi	ecstatic cry

X · Sample Sentences

XI · Vocabulary

Nouns

Form	Meaning	Type
apā	water	fem. ā
aiwon	eternity	neut. o
armonā	harmony	fem. ā
atimenā	anamnesis	fem. ā
ausā	dawn, gold	fem. ā
aydolā	torch	fem. ā
aydos	blaze	masc. o (gen. aydō)
azā	ash	fem. ā
bazdā	word	fem. ā
bendā	chain	fem. ā
bewdā	awakening	fem. ā
danzwā	tongue	fem. ā
dázā	earth	fem. ā
dēsos	god	masc. o
dersā	gaze	fem. ā
dīwā	heaven	fem. ā
dómos	house	masc. o
dorā	gate, doors	fem. ā
esār	blood	neut. r (gen. esnó)
gebā	seizure, capital	fem. ā
hūlā	matter	fem. ā
kósmā	cosmos	fem. ā
lewdā	the people, freedom	fem. ā
lezā	law	fem. ā
lētā	release, forgetting	fem. ā
menā	thought	fem. ā
mētron	measure	neut. o
moitron	marketplace	neut. o
moisā	ecstasy	fem. ā
moizā	exchange	fem. ā
Naktā	Night	fem. ā
nóos	mind	masc. o
ōiōn	egg	neut. o
orpā	darkness	fem. ā
pāwar	fire	neut. r (gen. pāwnós, dat. pāwarōi)
pewtis	purification	fem. i
psūkā	soul	fem. ā
pūris	child	i-stem (voc. pūri)
rezā	plan, governance	fem. ā
rezon	principle	neut. o
rezos	ruler	masc. o
sālā	beauty	fem. ā
Sáulis	the Sun	i-stem (gen. Sauleis)
sanā	song	fem. ā
selā	concealment, veil	fem. ā
serdā	heart	fem. ā
sewā	void	fem. ā
snēā	thread, web	fem. ā
stelā	balance	fem. ā
strewā	stream	fem. ā
swepós	sleep	masc. o
tāsā	sacred silence	fem. ā
teksā	craft, art	fem. ā
tentis	tension	fem. i (gen. tenteis)
weidā	image, vision	fem. ā
wertā	revolution, turning	fem. ā
westis	garment, guise	fem. i (acc. westín)
wērā	truth	fem. ā
werzā	labor	fem. ā
yewā	rite, sacred law	fem. ā
yugon	yoke	neut. o
zāwā	joy	fem. ā
zbelā	lightning	fem. ā
zelā	wine, gleam	fem. ā
zenís	offspring	i-stem
zerā	glow	fem. ā
zewtron	vessel	neut. o

Agent Nouns

Form	Meaning	Type
pewtā	purifier	-tā (ā-stem)
werztā	worker	-tā
znōtā	knower	-tā
tekstā	craftsman	-tā
zelozewōn	wine-pourer, hierophant	-ōn (n-stem)
naktosanōn	night-singer	-ōn

Compounds

Form	Meaning
noopāwar	mind-fire
zelopāwar	wine-fire
pāwaroserdā	fire-heart
werzostelā	labor-balance
werzomētron	labor-measure
lewdorezā	democratic planning
lewdobazdā	the people’s word
saulorezā	solar governance
wēroselā	truth-shield
serdoaydā	heart-kindling
snēokósmā	world-thread
kósmogermā	cosmos-warming
wisodamā	all-taming
wisodaltā	all-protector
orpodertā	darkness-tearer
bendodertā	chain-breaker
asterozelonts	star-gleaming
zeltozelonts	gold-gleaming
zāwodōtā	joy-giver
psūkolētā	soul-releaser
saulozenís	sun-born
dīwozenis	heaven-born

Adjectives

M / F / N	Meaning
zeltós / zeltā / zeltón	golden
sersós / sersā / sersón	black
zebrós / zebrā / zebrón	sacred
anmartós / anmartā / anmartón	immortal
martós / martā / martón	mortal
oinos / oinā / oinon	one, alone
wisós / wisā / wisón	all, every
prāmós / prāmā / prāmón	first
semós / semā / semón	equal, the same
senós / senā / senón	ancient
rudós / rudā / rudón	red
germós / germā / germón	warm
darsós / darsā / darsón	bold
pewtós / pewtā / pewtón	purified
seltós / seltā / seltón	concealed
ne-bazdetós / -ā / -ón	ineffable
ne-weidetós / -ā / -ón	un-seeable
ne-zebrós / -ā / -ón	unholy

Participles

Form	Meaning
zelonts / zelontī	gleaming
samonts	toiling
znōnts	knowing

Verbs (Principal Parts)

Imp. 2sg	Pres. 3sg	Aor. 3sg	Meaning
slūi	slūti	slūse	hear
ayde	aydeti	aydése	kindle
zewe	zeweti	zewése	pour
dale	daleti	dalése	protect
lēi	lēti	lētése	release
steige	steigeti	steigése	walk
pewe	peweti	—	purify
pōi	pōti	—	drink
werte	werteti	wertése	turn
ezere	ezereti	ezerése	rouse
bāi	bāti	bāse	speak
pleke	pleketi	plekése	weave
stele	steleti	—	set, balance
tāse	tāseti	—	be silent
derse	derseti	dersése	gaze
geme	gemeti	gemése	come
sperze	—	sperzése	scatter
klāwe	—	—	close
were	—	—	open
ede	—	—	eat
epe	—	—	offer
seke	—	—	follow
plewe	—	plewése	flow
—	geneti	genése	become
—	bereti	berése	carry
—	tremeti	tremése	tremble
—	weideti	weidése	see
—	seleti	selése	conceal
—	weseti	wesése	wear
—	gebeti	gebése	seize
—	mereti	merése	die
—	sāgeti	—	seek
—	rezeti	rezése	direct, plan
—	saneti	sanése	sing
—	bendeti	—	bind
—	meneti	—	remember
—	senteti	—	send
—	stāti	stāse	stand
—	dōti	dōse	give
—	plēti	—	fill
—	esti	ése	be
—	—	kelése	strike
—	—	derése	tear

Theonyms

Name	Meaning
Sabázios	ecstasy god
Zbelsurdos	thunder god
Zagréus	the torn child
Pānēs	the First Light
ne-bazdetos	the Ineffable

Substrate Vocabulary (Pre-Indo-European)

Form	Meaning
nassesessā	ferment-vat
sittālassā	sacred grove
kānnullessā	grain offering